VLSI Test Principles and Architectures

, by Wang; Wu; Wen; Abdel-Hafez; Bhattacharya; Chatterjee; Chen; Cheng; Eklow; Hsiao; Huang; Huang; Jone; Kapur; Keller; Lee; Li; Li; Li; Mak; Min; Nadeau-Dostie; Nourani; Rajski; Stroud; Volkerink; Walker; Wu; Touba

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ISBN: 9780123705976 | 0123705975
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 7/7/2006

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This book is a comprehensive guide to new DFT methods that will show the readers how to design a testable and quality product, drive down test cost, improve product quality and yield, and speed up time-to-market and time-to-volume. · Most up-to-date coverage of design for testability. · Coverage of industry practices commonly found in commercial DFT tools but not discussed in other books. · Numerous, practical examples in each chapter illustrating basic VLSI test principles and DFT architectures. · Lecture slides and exercise solutions for all chapters are now available. · Instructors are also eligible for downloading PPT slide files and MSWORD solutions files from the manual website.

Preface

xxi

In the Classroom

xxiv

Acknowledgments

xxv

Contributors

xxvii

About the Editors

xxix

Introduction

(36)

Yinghua Min

Charles Stroud

Importance of Testing

(1)

Testing During the VLSI Lifecycle

(6)

VLSI Development Process

(1)

Design Verification

(1)

Yield and Reject Rate

(1)

Electronic System Manufacturing Process

(1)

System-Level Operation

(2)

Challenges in VLSI Testing

(14)

Test Generation

(2)

Fault Models

(1)

Stuck-At Faults

(3)

Transistor Faults

(1)

Open and Short Faults

(3)

Delay Faults and Crosstalk

(1)

Pattern Sensitivity and Coupling Faults

(1)

Analog Fault Models

(1)

Levels of Abstraction in VLSI Testing

(3)

(1)

Gate Level

(1)

Switch Level

(1)

Physical Level

(1)

Historical Review of VLSI Test Technology

(8)

Automatic Test Equipment

(2)

Automatic Test Pattern Generation

(1)

Fault Simulation

(1)

Digital Circuit Testing

(1)

Analog and Mixed-Signal Circuit Testing

(1)

Design for Testability

(2)

Board Testing

(1)

Boundary Scan Testing

(1)

Concluding Remarks

(1)

Exercises

(4)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(3)

Design for Testability

(68)

Laung-Terng (L.-T.) Wang

Xiaoqing Wen

Khader S. Abdel-Hafez

Introduction

(3)

Testability Analysis

(10)

SCOAP Testability Analysis

(1)

Combinational Controllability and Observability Calculation

(2)

Sequential Controllability and Observability Calculation

(2)

Probability-Based Testability Analysis

(2)

Simulation-Based Testability Analysis

(1)

RTL Testability Analysis

(2)

Design for Testability Basics

(5)

Ad Hoc Approach

(1)

Test Point Insertion

(2)

Structured Approach

(2)

Scan Cell Designs

(4)

Muxed-D Scan Cell

(1)

Clocked-Scan Cell

(1)

LSSD Scan Cell

(2)

Scan Architectures

(11)

Full-Scan Design

(1)

Muxed-D Full-Scan Design

(3)

Clocked Full-Scan Design

(1)

LSSD Full-Scan Design

(2)

Partial-Scan Design

(3)

Random-Access Scan Design

(3)

Scan Design Rules

(6)

Tristate Buses

(1)

Bidirectional I/O Ports

(1)

Gated Clocks

(3)

Derived Clocks

(1)

Combinational Feedback Loops

(1)

Asynchronous Set/Reset Signals

(1)

Scan Design Flow

(11)

Scan Design Rule Checking and Repair

(1)

Scan Synthesis

(1)

Scan Configuration

(3)

Scan Replacement

(1)

Scan Reordering

(1)

Scan Stitching

(1)

Scan Extraction

(1)

Scan Verification

(1)

Verifying the Scan Shift Operation

(1)

Verifying the Scan Capture Operation

(1)

Scan Design Costs

(1)

Special-Purpose Scan Designs

(5)

Enhanced Scan

(1)

Snapshot Scan

(2)

Error-Resilient Scan

(2)

RTL Design for Testability

(3)

RTL Scan Design Rule Checking and Repair

(1)

RTL Scan Synthesis

(1)

RTL Scan Extraction and Scan Verification

(1)

Concluding Remarks

(1)

Exercises

(9)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(6)

Logic and Fault Simulation

105

(56)

Jiun-Lang Huang

James C.-M. Li

Duncan M. (Hank) Walker

Introduction

106

(2)

Logic Simulation for Design Verification

106

(1)

Fault Simulation for Test and Diagnosis

107

(1)

Simulation Models

108

(13)

Gate-Level Network

109

(1)

Sequential Circuits

109

(1)

Logic Symbols

110

(1)

Unknown State u

111

(2)

High-Impedance State Z

113

(1)

Intermediate Logic States

114

(1)

Logic Element Evaluation

114

(1)

Truth Tables

115

(1)

Input Scanning

115

(1)

Input Counting

116

(1)

Parallel Gate Evaluation

116

(2)

Timing Models

118

(1)

Transport Delay

118

(1)

Inertial Delay

119

(1)

Wire Delay

119

(1)

Functional Element Delay Model

120

(1)

Logic Simulation

121

(11)

Compiled-Code Simulation

121

(1)

Logic Optimization

121

(2)

Logic Levelization

123

(1)

Code Generation

124

(1)

Event-Driven Simulation

125

(1)

Nominal-Delay Event-Driven Simulation

126

(3)

Compiled-Code Versus Event-Driven Simulation

129

(1)

Hazards

130

(1)

Static Hazard Detection

131

(1)

Dynamic Hazard Detection

132

(1)

Fault Simulation

132

(22)

Serial Fault Simulation

133

(2)

Parallel Fault Simulation

135

(1)

Parallel Fault Simulation

135

(2)

Parallel-Pattern Fault Simulation

137

(2)

Deductive Fault Simulation

139

(4)

Concurrent Fault Simulation

143

(3)

Differential Fault Simulation

146

(2)

Fault Detection

148

(1)

Comparison of Fault Simulation Techniques

149

(2)

Alternatives to Fault Simulation

151

(1)

Toggle Coverage

151

(1)

Fault Sampling

151

(1)

Critical Path Tracing

152

(1)

Statistical Fault Analysis

153

(1)

Concluding Remarks

154

(1)

Exercises

155

(6)

References

158

(3)

Test Generation

161

(102)

Michael S. Hsiao

Introduction

161

(2)

Random Test Generation

163

(3)

Exhaustive Testing

166

(1)

Theoretical Background: Boolean Difference

166

(3)

Untestable Faults

168

(1)

Designing a Stuck-At ATPG for Combinational Circuits

169

(25)

A Naive ATPG Algorithm

169

(3)

Backtracking

172

(1)

A Basic ATPG Algorithm

173

(4)

D Algorithm

177

(5)

PODEM

182

(4)

FAN

186

(1)

Static Logic Implications

187

(4)

Dynamic Logic Implications

191

(3)

Designing a Sequential ATPG

194

(6)

Time Frame Expansion

194

(2)

5-Valued Algebra Is Insufficient

196

(1)

Gated Clocks and Multiple Clocks

197

(3)

Untestable Fault Identification

200

(7)

Multiple-Line Conflict Analysis

203

(4)

Designing a Simulation-Based ATPG

207

(11)

Overview

208

(1)

Genetic-Algorithm-Based ATPG

208

(4)

Issues Concerning the GA Population

212

(1)

Issues Concerning GA Parameters

213

(1)

Issues Concerning the Fitness Function

213

(2)

CASE Studies

215

(3)

Advanced Simulation-Based ATPG

218

(8)

Seeding the GA with Helpful Sequences

218

(4)

Logic-Simulation-Based ATPG

222

(3)

Spectrum-Based ATPG

225

(1)

Hybrid Deterministic and Simulation-Based ATPG

226

(5)

ALT-TEST Hybrid

228

(3)

ATPG for Non-Stuck-At Faults

231

(15)

Designing an ATPG That Captures Delay Defects

231

(2)

Classification of Path-Delay Faults

233

(3)

ATPG for Path-Delay Faults

236

(2)

ATPG for Transition Faults

238

(2)

Transition ATPG Using Stuck-At ATPG

240

(1)

Transition ATPG Using Stuck-At Vectors

240

(1)

Transition Test Chains via Weighted Transition Graph

241

(3)

Bridging Fault ATPG

244

(2)

Other Topics in Test Generation

246

(2)

Test Set Compaction

246

(1)

N-Detect ATPG

247

(1)

ATPG for Acyclic Sequential Circuits

247

(1)

IDDQ Testing

247

(1)

Designing a High-Level ATPG

248

(1)

Concluding Remarks

248

(1)

Exercises

249

(14)

References

256

(7)

Logic Built-In Self-Test

263

(78)

Laung-Terng (L.-T.) Wang

Introduction

264

(2)

BIST Design Rules

266

(5)

Unknown Source Blocking

267

(1)

Analog Blocks

267

(1)

Memories and Non-Scan Storage Elements

268

(1)

Combinational Feedback Loops

268

(1)

Asynchronous Set/Reset Signals

268

(1)

Tristate Buses

269

(1)

False Paths

270

(1)

Critical Paths

270

(1)

Multiple-Cycle Paths

270

(1)

Floating Ports

270

(1)

Bidirectional I/O Ports

271

(1)

Re-Timing

271

(1)

Test Pattern Generation

271

(19)

Exhaustive Testing

275

(1)

Binary Counter

275

(1)

Complete LFSR

275

(2)

Pseudo-Random Testing

277

(1)

Maximum-Length LFSR

278

(1)

Weighted LFSR

278

(1)

Cellular Automata

278

(3)

Pseudo-Exhaustive Testing

281

(1)

Verification Testing

282

(5)

Segmentation Testing

287

(1)

Delay Fault Testing

288

(1)

Summary

289

(1)

Output Response Analysis

290

(6)

Ones Count Testing

291

(1)

Transition Count Testing

291

(1)

Signature Analysis

292

(1)

Serial Signature Analysis

292

(2)

Parallel Signature Analysis

294

(2)

Logic BIST Architectures

296

(8)

BIST Architectures for Circuits without Scan Chains

296

(1)

A Centralized and Separate Board-Level BIST Architecture

296

(1)

Built-In Evaluation and Self-Test (BEST)

297

(1)

BIST Architectures for Circuits with Scan Chains

297

(1)

LSSD On-Chip Self-Test

297

(1)

Self-Testing Using MISR and Parallel SRSG

298

(1)

BIST Architectures Using Register Reconfiguration

298

(1)

Built-In Logic Block Observer

299

(1)

Modified Built-In Logic Block Observer

300

(1)

Concurrent Built-In Logic Block Observer

300

(2)

Circular Self-Test Path (CSTP)

302

(1)

BIST Architectures Using Concurrent Checking Circuits

303

(1)

Concurrent Self-Verification

303

(1)

Summary

304

(1)

Fault Coverage Enhancement

304

(6)

Test Point Insertion

305

(1)

Test Point Placement

306

(1)

Control Point Activation

307

(1)

Mixed-Mode BIST

308

(1)

ROM Compression

308

(1)

LFSR Reseeding

308

(1)

Embedding Deterministic Patterns

309

(1)

Hybrid BIST

309

(1)

BIST Timing Control

310

(9)

Single-Capture

310

(1)

One-Hot Single-Capture

310

(1)

Staggered Single-Capture

311

(1)

Skewed-Load

311

(1)

One-Hot Skewed-Load

312

(1)

Aligned Skewed-Load

312

(2)

Staggered Skewed-Load

314

(1)

Double-Capture

315

(1)

One-Hot Double-Capture

315

(1)

Aligned Double-Capture

316

(1)

Staggered Double-Capture

317

(1)

Fault Detection

317

(2)

A Design Practice

319

(8)

BIST Rule Checking and Violation Repair

320

(1)

Logic BIST System Design

320

(1)

Logic BIST Architecture

320

(1)

TPG and ORA

321

(1)

Test Controller

322

(1)

Clock Gating Block

323

(2)

Re-Timing Logic

325

(1)

Fault Coverage Enhancing Logic and Diagnostic Logic

325

(1)

RTL BIST Synthesis

326

(1)

Design Verification and Fault Coverage Enhancement

326

(1)

Concluding Remarks

327

(1)

Exercises

327

(14)

Acknowledgments

331

(1)

References

331

(10)

Test Compression

341

(56)

Xiaowei Li

Kuen-Jong Lee

Nur A. Touba

Introduction

342

(2)

Test Stimulus Compression

344

(20)

Code-Based Schemes

345

(1)

Dictionary Code (Fixed-to-Fixed)

345

(1)

Huffman Code (Fixed-to-Variable)

346

(3)

Run-Length Code (Variable-to-Fixed)

349

(1)

Golomb Code (Variable-to-Variable)

350

(1)

Linear-Decompression-Based Schemes

351

(4)

Combinational Linear Decompressors

355

(1)

Fixed-Length Sequential Linear Decompressors

355

(1)

Variable-Length Sequential Linear Decompressors

356

(1)

Combined Linear and Nonlinear Decompressors

357

(2)

Broadcast-Scan-Based Schemes

359

(1)

Broadcast Scan

359

(1)

Illinois Scan

360

(2)

Multiple-Input Broadcast Scan

362

(1)

Reconfigurable Broadcast Scan

362

(1)

Virtual Scan

363

(1)

Test Response Compaction

364

(12)

Space Compaction

367

(1)

Zero-Aliasing Linear Compaction

367

(2)

X-Compact

369

(2)

X-Blocking

371

(1)

X-Masking

372

(1)

X-Impact

373

(1)

Time Compaction

374

(1)

Mixed Time and Space Compaction

375

(1)

Industry Practices

376

(12)

OPMISR+

377

(2)

Embedded Deterministic Test

379

(3)

VirtualScan and UltraScan

382

(3)

Adaptive Scan

385

(1)

ETCompression

386

(2)

Summary

388

(1)

Concluding Remarks

388

(1)

Exercises

389

(8)

Acknowledgments

390

(1)

References

391

(6)

Logic Diagnosis

397

(64)

Shi-Yu Huang

Introduction

397

(4)

Combinational Logic Diagnosis

401

(26)

Cause--Effect Analysis

401

(2)

Compaction and Compression of Fault Dictionary

403

(2)

Effect--Cause Analysis

405

(2)

Structural Pruning

407

(1)

Backtrace Algorithm

408

(1)

Inject-and-Evaluate Paradigm

409

(9)

Chip-Level Strategy

418

(1)

Direct Partitioning

418

(2)

Two-Phase Strategy

420

(4)

Overall Chip-Level Diagnostic Flow

424

(1)

Diagnostic Test Pattern Generation

425

(1)

Summary of Combinational Logic Diagnosis

426

(1)

Scan Chain Diagnosis

427

(15)

Preliminaries for Scan Chain Diagnosis

427

(3)

Hardware-Assisted Method

430

(2)

Modified Inject-and-Evaluate Paradigm

432

(2)

Signal-Profiling-Based Method

434

(1)

Diagnostic Test Sequence Selection

434

(1)

Run-and-Scan Test Application

434

(1)

Why Functional Sequence?

435

(2)

Profiling-Based Analysis

437

(4)

Summary of Scan Chain Diagnosis

441

(1)

Logic BIST Diagnosis

442

(7)

Overview of Logic BIST Diagnosis

442

(1)

Interval-Based Methods

443

(3)

Masking-Based Methods

446

(3)

Concluding Remarks

449

(1)

Exercises

450

(11)

Acknowledgments

453

(1)

References

454

(7)

Memory Testing and Built-In Self-Test

461

(56)

Cheng-Wen Wu

Introduction

462

(1)

RAM Functional Fault Models and Test Algorithms

463

(12)

RAM Functional Fault Models

463

(2)

RAM Dynamic Faults

465

(1)

Functional Test Patterns and Algorithms

466

(3)

March Tests

469

(2)

Comparison of RAM Test Patterns

471

(2)

Word-Oriented Memory

473

(1)

Multi-Port Memory

473

(2)

RAM Fault Simulation and Test Algorithm Generation

475

(13)

Fault Simulation

476

(1)

RAMSES

477

(3)

Test Algorithm Generation by Simulation

480

(8)

Memory Built-In Self-Test

488

(20)

RAM Specification and BIST Design Strategy

489

(4)

BIST Architectures and Functions

493

(2)

BIST Implementation

495

(5)

BRAINS: A RAM BIST Compiler

500

(8)

Concluding Remarks

508

(1)

Exercises

509

(8)

Acknowledgments

513

(1)

References

513

(4)

Memory Diagnosis and Built-In Self-Repair

517

(40)

Cheng-Wen Wu

Introduction

518

(1)

Why Memory Diagnosis?

518

(1)

Why Memory Repair?

518

(1)

Refined Fault Models and Diagnostic Test Algorithms

518

(3)

BIST with Diagnostic Support

521

(5)

Controller

521

(2)

Test Pattern Generator

523

(1)

Fault Site Indicator (FSI)

524

(2)

RAM Defect Diagnosis and Failure Analysis

526

(3)

RAM Redundancy Analysis Algorithms

529

(8)

Conventional Redundancy Analysis Algorithms

529

(2)

The Essential Spare Pivoting Algorithm

531

(4)

Repair Rate and Overhead

535

(2)

Built-In Self-Repair

537

(15)

Redundancy Organization

537

(1)

BISR Architecture and Procedure

538

(3)

BIST Module

541

(1)

BIRA Module

542

(3)

An Industrial Case

545

(3)

Repair Rate and Yield

548

(4)

Concluding Remarks

552

(1)

Exercises

552

(5)

Acknowledgments

553

(1)

References

553

(4)

Boundary Scan and Core-Based Testing

557

(62)

Kuen-Jong Lee

Introduction

558

(3)

IEEE 1149 Standard Family

558

(1)

Core-Based Design and Test Considerations

559

(2)

Digital Boundary Scan (IEEE Std. 1149.1)

561

(18)

Basic Concept

561

(1)

Overall 1149.1 Test Architecture and Operations

562

(2)

Test Access Port and Bus Protocols

564

(1)

Data Registers and Boundary-Scan Cells

565

(2)

TAP Controller

567

(2)

Instruction Register and Instruction Set

569

(5)

Boundary-Scan Description Language

574

(1)

On-Chip Test Support with Boundary Scan

574

(2)

Board and System-Level Boundary-Scan Control Architectures

576

(3)

Boundary Scan for Advanced Networks (IEEE 1149.6)

579

(6)

Rationale for 1149.6

579

(2)

1149.6 Analog Test Receiver

581

(1)

1149.6 Digital Driver Logic

581

(1)

1149.6 Digital Receiver Logic

582

(2)

1149.6 Test Access Port (TAP)

584

(1)

Summary

585

(1)

Embedded Core Test Standard (IEEE Std. 1500)

585

(25)

SOC (System-on-Chip) Test Problems

585

(2)

Overall Architecture

587

(2)

Wrapper Components and Functions

589

(8)

Instruction Set

597

(4)

Core Test Language (CTL)

601

(2)

Core Test Supporting and System Test Configurations

603

(3)

Hierarchical Test Control and Plug-and-Play

606

(4)

Comparisons between the 1500 and 1149.1 Standards

610

(1)

Concluding Remarks

611

(1)

Exercises

612

(7)

Acknowledgments

614

(1)

References

614

(5)

Analog and Mixed-Signal Testing

619

(60)

Chauchin Su

Introduction

619

(8)

Analog Circuit Properties

620

(1)

Continuous Signals

621

(1)

Large Range of Circuits

621

(1)

Nonlinear Characteristics

621

(1)

Feedback Ambiguity

622

(1)

Complicated Cause--Effect Relationship

622

(1)

Absence of Suitable Fault Model

622

(1)

Requirement for Accurate Instruments for Measuring Analog Signals

623

(1)

Analog Defect Mechanisms and Fault Models

623

(2)

Hard Faults

625

(1)

Soft Faults

625

(2)

Analog Circuit Testing

627

(14)

Analog Test Approaches

627

(2)

Analog Test Waveforms

629

(2)

DC Parametric Testing

631

(1)

Open-Loop Gain Measurement

632

(1)

Unit Gain Bandwidth Measurement

633

(1)

Common Mode Rejection Ratio Measurement

634

(1)

Power Supply Rejection Ratio Measurement

635

(1)

AC Parametric Testing

635

(1)

Maximal Output Amplitude Measurement

636

(1)

Frequency Response Measurement

637

(2)

SNR and Distortion Measurement

639

(2)

Intermodulation Distortion Measurement

641

(1)

Mixed-Signal Testing

641

(17)

Introduction to Analog--Digital Conversion

642

(2)

ADC and DAC Circuit Structure

644

(2)

DAC Circuit Structure

646

(1)

ADC Circuit Structure

646

(1)

ADC/DAC Specification and Fault Models

647

(5)

IEEE 1057 Standard

652

(2)

Time-Domain ADC Testing

654

(1)

Code Bins

654

(1)

Code Transition Level Test (Static)

655

(1)

Code Transition Level Test (Dynamic)

655

(1)

Gain and Offset Test

656

(1)

Linearity Error and Maximal Static Error

657

(1)

Sine Wave Curve-Fit Test

658

(1)

Frequency-Domain ADC Testing

658

(1)

IEEE 1149.4 Standard for a Mixed-Signal Test Bus

658

(15)

IEEE 1149.4 Overview

659

(1)

Scope of the Standard

660

(1)

IEEE 1149.4 Circuit Structures

661

(4)

IEEE 1149.4 Instructions

665

(1)

Mandatory Instructions

665

(1)

Optional Instructions

665

(1)

IEEE 1149.4 Test Modes

666

(1)

Open/Short Interconnect Testing

666

(1)

Extended Interconnect Measurement

667

(4)

Complex Network Measurement

671

(1)

High-Performance Configuration

672

(1)

Concluding Remarks

673

(1)

Exercises

673

(6)

Acknowledgments

676

(1)

References

677

(2)

Test Technology Trends in the Nanometer Age

679

(72)

Kwang-Ting (Tim) Cheng

Wen-Ben Jone

Laung-Terng (L.-T.) Wang

Test Technology Roadmap

680

(5)

Delay Testing

685

(7)

Test Application Schemes for Testing Delay Defects

686

(1)

Delay Fault Models

687

(3)

Summary

690

(2)

Coping with Physical Failures, Soft Errors, and Reliability Issues

692

(14)

Signal Integrity and Power Supply Noise

692

(1)

Integrity Loss Fault Model

693

(1)

Location

694

(1)

Pattern Generation

694

(1)

Sensing and Readout

695

(1)

Parametric Defects, Process Variations, and Yield

696

(1)

Defect-Based Test

697

(1)

Soft Errors

698

(3)

Fault Tolerance

701

(4)

Defect and Error Tolerance

705

(1)

FPGA Testing

706

(5)

Impact of Programmability

706

(2)

Testing Approaches

708

(1)

Built-In Self-Test of Logic Resources

708

(1)

Built-In Self-Test of Routing Resources

709

(1)

Recent Trends

710

(1)

MEMS Testing

711

(8)

Basic Concepts for Capacitive MEMS Devices

711

(2)

MEMS Built-In Self-Test

713

(1)

Sensitivity BIST Scheme

713

(1)

Symmetry BIST Scheme

713

(1)

A Dual-Mode BIST Technique

714

(2)

A BIST Example for MEMS Comb Accelerometers

716

(3)

Conclusions

719

(1)

High-speed I/O Testing

719

(9)

I/O Interface Technology and Trend

720

(4)

I/O Testing and Challenges

724

(1)

High-Performance I/O Test Solutions

725

(1)

Future Challenges

726

(2)

RF Testing

728

(9)

Core RF Building Blocks

729

(1)

RF Test Specifications and Measurement Procedures

730

(1)

Gain

730

(1)

Conversion Gain

731

(1)

Third-Order Intercept

731

(2)

Noise Figure

733

(1)

Tests for System-Level Specifications

733

(1)

Adjacent Channel Power Ratio

733

(1)

Error Vector Magnitude, Magnitude Error, and Phase Error

734

(1)

Current and Future Trends

735

(1)

Future Trends

736

(1)

Concluding Remarks

737

(14)

Acknowledgments

738

(1)

References

738

(13)

Index

751

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VLSI Test Principles and Architectures

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials