Critical Thinking in Psychology Separating Sense from Nonsense

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ISBN: 9780534634599 | 0534634591
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 7/26/2005

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Do you have the tools to distinguish between the true science of human thought and behavior from pop psychology? John Ruscio's book provides a tangible and compelling framework for making that distinction. Because we are inundated with "scientific" claims, the author does not merely differentiate science and pseudoscience, but goes further to teach the fundamentals of scientific reasoning upon which you can base your evaluation of information.

Preface

Challenging Widely Accepted Claims

Empowering Students to Evaluate Claims for Themselves

xvii

1. Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience

xvii

2. Teaching Critical Thinking Skills

xvii

3. Using Memorable Examples

xviii

4. Exploring Material Relevant to Many Courses

xviii

Broad Coverage Complemented by Electronic Resources

xviii

New to the Second Edition

xix

Acknowledgments

About the Author

Evaluating Sources Whether in Print or on the Internet

xxiii

Sharpening and Leveling

xxiv

Criteria for Evaluating the Quality of Sources

xxv

Popularity

xxv

Reviews

xxvi

The Internet as a Research Tool

xxvii

The Content of Web Sites

xxvii

Internet Searches

xxviii

Thinking for Yourself

xxix

Part One DECEPTION

Chapter 1 Introduction: Pseudoscience and the Need for Critical Thinking

(13)

Separating Sense from Nonsense

(3)

Studying Human Reasoning

(1)

Systematic Errors Reveal Our Mental Shortcuts

(1)

The Pros and Cons of Relying on Shortcuts

(1)

Thinking Critically

(1)

Applying the Tools of Critical Thinking

(1)

Ten Characteristics of Pseudoscience

(4)

1. Outward Appearance of Science

(1)

2. Absence of Skeptical Peer Review

(1)

3. Reliance on Personal Experience

(1)

4. Evasion of Risky Tests

(1)

5. Retreats to the Supernatural

(1)

6. The Mantra of Holism

(1)

7. Tolerance of Inconsistencies

(1)

8. Appeals to Authority

(1)

9. Promising the Impossible

(1)

10. Stagnation

(1)

The Plan of This Book

(4)

Part One: Deception

(1)

Part Two: Self-Deception

(1)

Part Three: Psychological Tricks

(1)

Part Four: Decision Making and Ethics

(1)

Chapter 2 Science: Evaluating Claims to Knowledge

(15)

Scientific Reasoning

(14)

Falsifiability

(1)

Logic

(1)

Comprehensiveness

(1)

Honesty

(1)

Replicability

(1)

Sufficiency

(1)

Antiscientific Beliefs

(1)

Postmodernism

(3)

The "What Works Is Different for Everybody" Fallacy

(1)

The "Probability Is Irrelevant to the Unique Individual" Fallacy

(1)

Voodoo Science and Legal Standards

(5)

Chapter 3 Language: Misleading and Evasive Tactics

(13)

Weasel Words and Framing Effects

(4)

Cooperation and Conversational Maxims

(7)

Quality: The Myth of "Health Food"

(1)

Quantity: Suggestive and Leading Questions

(2)

Relation: The Irrelevant Language of "Alternative" Health Care

(2)

Manner: The Emptiness of "Holism"

(2)

Closing Thoughts: False Dichotomies and the Slippery Slope

(2)

Chapter 4 Magic: The Allure of Exotic Rituals, Fantasy, and Mysticism

(12)

Believing in Magic

(1)

Wishful Thinking

(2)

Belief in a Vitalistic Energy

(1)

Putting the "Human Energy Field" to the Test

(1)

The Creation of Superstitions and Exotic Rituals

(2)

Superstitions as Representative Thinking

(1)

Maintenance of Superstitions

(1)

Abuses of Science in Favor of Mysticism

(1)

The Magic of Modern Technology

(2)

Chapter 5 Authority: Appeals to Blind Obedience

(13)

Milgram's Research

(3)

Understanding Milgram's Results

(1)

When Should We Obey?

(1)

Untrustworthy Authorities

(3)

The "Ancient Wisdom" Fallacy

(1)

The Popularity Fallacy

(1)

The Fallacy of Self-Proclaimed Expertise

(2)

Political Lobbying as a Warning Flag

(5)

The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine

(2)

The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act

(3)

Part Two SELF-DECEPTION

Chapter 6 Experience: The Limitations of Testimonials as Evidence

(12)

Self-Deception

(1)

Competing Explanations

(7)

The Placebo Effect

(2)

Spontaneous Remission

(1)

The Disease Ran Its Natural Course

(1)

The Cyclical Nature of Many Diseases

(1)

Misdiagnosis

(1)

The "Worried Well"

(1)

Symptomatic Relief

(1)

Hedged Bets

(1)

Derivative Benefits

(1)

Psychological Distortion of Reality

(1)

The Bottom Line

(1)

Probabilistic General Principles

(3)

Chapter 7 Plausibility: All Beliefs Are Not Created Equal

(15)

Magnet Therapy: Claims Versus Reality

(3)

Magnets and Water

(1)

Magnets and the Human Body

(1)

The Strength of "Therapeutic" Magnets

(1)

Homeopathy: Empty Promises

(4)

The Law of Similars

(1)

The Law of Infinitesimals

(2)

Evasive Maneuver 1: Lowering the Dilution Factor

(1)

Evasive Maneuver 2: "Water Memory"

(1)

Electromagnetic Fields and Cancer

(2)

Alien Abductions: A Modern-Day Misunderstanding

(5)

The Contamination Effect

(1)

Dull Fantasies and Contradictions

(1)

Sleep Paralysis

(3)

Chapter 8 Association: Establishing and Interpreting Correlations

(12)

Presuming an Association Through Mere Examples

(1)

Presuming an Association Through a Lone Rate

(1)

Interpreting a Correlation

(4)

Causal Relationships Between Correlated Events

(1)

Three Conditions for Causality

(1)

Examining Patterns Across Multiple Correlations

100

(2)

Beware the Media

102

(2)

Do Horoscopes Predict Anything?

104

(2)

Part Three PSYCHOLOGICAL TRICKS

Chapter 9 Risk: Biased Perceptions and the Media Paradox

106

(9)

Vividness

106

(2)

Availability

108

(1)

The Media Paradox

109

(2)

Falling Airplane Parts Revisited

111

(1)

A Radical Conjecture

112

(11)

Mindful Attention to Media Reports

123

Chapter 10 Belief: Confirmation Bias, Post-Hockery, and Overconfidence

115

(14)

Discovery Versus Verification: The Importance of Prediction

116

(4)

The Bible Code

116

(2)

The "Hot Hand" in Basketball

118

(2)

Confirmation Bias

120

(5)

The Rorschach Inkblot Test

121

(1)

Graphology: Handwriting Analysis

122

(1)

Polygraphy: The "Lie Detector" Test

123

(2)

Absent or Misleading Feedback

125

(1)

Hindsight Bias and Overconfidence

126

(1)

Foiling Post-Hockery

127

(1)

Answers to the Confidence Quiz

128

(1)

Chapter 11 Schemes: The Seductiveness of Grand Conspiracy Theories

129

(10)

The Three Roles in a Conspiracy Theory

129

(2)

Conspirators

129

(1)

Saviors

130

(1)

Dupes

130

(1)

A Grand Conspiracy Theory: "Area 51"

131

(2)

The Role of the Media

131

(1)

Thinking Critically About Area 51

132

(1)

Problems Facing Any Grand Conspiracy Theory

133

(1)

The "Hidden Cure" Conspiracy

134

(3)

Intense Competition Is Ignored

134

(1)

The Alleged Profit Motive Makes No Sense

135

(1)

Science Is Never Going to Cure All Disease

136

(1)

Monumental Callousness Is Presumed

136

(1)

Why Does the Theory of Hidden Cures Persist?

136

(1)

Challenging Conspiracies

137

(2)

Chapter 12 Illusions: The Perception of Control

139

(11)

The Illusion of Control

140

(1)

The Certainty Effect

141

(1)

The Dangers of Illusions of Control

142

(2)

Belief in the "Just World" and the Blaming of Victims

142

(1)

Self-Blame

143

(1)

Learned Helplessness

144

(1)

The Downside to Mental Imagery

144

(1)

The "Choose to Be Healthy" Fallacy

145

(2)

Prayer and Religion-Motivated Medical Neglect

147

(3)

Part Four DECISION MAKING AND ETHICS

Chapter 13 Assessment: Classical Decision Theory

150

(20)

Polygraph Tests

152

(1)

Classical Decision Theory and Frequency Trees

153

(2)

Base Rate: How Rare an Outcome Is One Trying to Detect?

155

(2)

Validity: What is the Strength of the Evidence?

157

(3)

Threshold: Where Does One Draw the Line to Make a Decision?

160

(1)

Laboratory Validity Versus Field Utility

161

(1)

Putting It All Together

162

(3)

Nutritional Scams

165

(3)

Validity

165

(1)

Base Rate

166

(1)

Threshold

167

(1)

Protecting Against Professional Misconduct

168

(2)

Chapter 14 Decisions: Clinical Versus Statistical Approaches

170

(14)

Two Approaches to Decision Making

171

(1)

Why Is the Statistical Approach Superior?

172

(5)

Validity

173

(1)

Units of Measurement

173

(1)

Reliability

174

(1)

Redundancy

175

(1)

Regression Effects

176

(1)

Adherence to the Clinical Approach

177

(4)

Knowledge Deficit

177

(1)

Fear of Computers

177

(1)

Fear of Unemployment

178

(1)

Belief in the Efficacy of One's Judgment

178

(1)

Theoretical Identifications

179

(1)

The "Dehumanizing" Feel of Statistical Equations

180

(1)

Mistaken Conception of Ethics

180

(1)

Embracing Statistical Decisions

181

(3)

Pro/Con Lists

181

(1)

Professional Practice

181

(2)

Statistics Do Apply to the Individual

183

(1)

Chapter 15 Ethics: The Use and Promotion of Unverified Treatments

184

(13)

Overlooking the Obvious in Favor of the Unlikely

184

(1)

Repressed Memories and Multiple Personalities

185

(6)

Cost-Benefit Ratio

191

(2)

Skewed Projections of Benefit and Harm

191

(1)

The Overlooked Opportunity Costs

192

(1)

Truly Informed Consent and Patient Autonomy

193

(2)

The "Health Freedom" Fallacy

195

(2)

Chapter 16 Tools: Suggestions for Critical Thinking

197

(11)

The Dangers of a Pseudoscientific Approach to Health Care

199

(1)

Thinking Critically

200

(7)

Reconceptualize Issues in Multiple Ways

201

(1)

Beware of Wishful Thinking

201

(1)

Consider the Legitimacy of Authorities

201

(1)

Seek Risky Tests, Not Weak Confirmation

201

(1)

Don't Be Misled by Testimonials

202

(1)

Keep in Touch with Reality

202

(1)

Remember That Correlation Does Not Imply Causation

202

(1)

Beware the Media Paradox

203

(1)

Formulate Multiple Working Hypotheses

203

(1)

Ask What Can Be Predicted

203

(1)

Challenge Conspiracy Theories

203

(1)

Watch Out for Illusions of Control

204

(1)

Be Careful Not to Blame Victims

204

(1)

Consider Both Positive and Negative Consequences of a Claim

204

(1)

Pay Attention to Base Rates

204

(1)

Accept Some Mistakes in Order to Minimize Error

205

(1)

Take Advantage of the Power of Statistical Decision Making

205

(1)

Don't Misinterpret Regression Toward the Mean

205

(1)

Consider Both Costs and Benefits

206

(1)

Practice Critical Thinking

206

(1)

A Closing Thought on Wishful Thinking

207

(1)

References

208

(15)

Index

223

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Critical Thinking in Psychology Separating Sense from Nonsense

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Supplemental Materials