Burnt Human Remains Recovery, Analysis, and Interpretation

An all-encompassing reference and guide designed for professionals involved in the forensic analysis of burnt remains

Burnt Human Remains: Recovery, Analysis and Interpretation presents an in-depth multidisciplinary approach to the detection, recovery, analysis, and identification of thermally altered remains. Bridging the gap between research and practice, this invaluable one-stop reference provides detailed coverage of analytical techniques in forensic medicine and pathology, forensic anthropology, forensic odontology, and forensic chemistry and forensic biology. Contributions from a panel of expert authors review the newest findings in forensics research and discuss their applicability to forensic case work.

Opening with a historical overview of the discipline, the book covers the search and recovery aspects of burnt human remains, medico-legal investigations, determination of the post mortem interval of burnt remains, structural changes of burnt bone and teeth, DNA extraction from burnt remains, and much more. Throughout the text, the authors emphasize the importance of understanding the changes undergone by bodies when subjected to fire for establishing identity, reconstructing the events leading up to incineration, and determining the cause and manner of death.

• Provides a systemic framework that integrates established forensic methods and state-of-the-art analytical approaches
• Describes different forensic analyses from the macroscopical, microscopical, biochemical, and molecular level
• Features international case studies of challenging individual cases as well as natural or man-made mass fatalities requiring the identification of incinerated remains
• Demonstrates how changes to the macro- and microstructure of burnt remains can reveal information about incineration conditions
• Discusses organizations and programs focused on developing standards and best practice for the recovery and analysis burnt remains

Burnt Human Remains: Recovery, Analysis and Interpretation is an indispensable resource for all practitioners engaged in the interpretation of burned human tissue, including pathologists, forensic chemists, forensic biologists, forensic anthropologists, forensic odontologists, and archaeologists.

Sarah Ellingham, Forensic Coordinator, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Geneva, Switzerland.

Joe Adserias Garriga, Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst University, Pennsylvania, USA.

Sara C. Zapico, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, New Jersey, USA., and Research Collaborator, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA.

Douglas H. Ubelaker, Curator and Senior Scientist, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA.

About the Editors xiii

List of Contributors xv

Preface xxvii

Series Preface xxix

1 History of the Study of Burnt Remains 1
Douglas H. Ubelaker and Austin A. Shamlou

1.1 Early Developments Prior to 1980 1

1.2 Post-1980 Advanced Experimentation and Casework 3

1.3 The 1990s: New Methods and Case Applications 4

1.4 Summary and Conclusions 6

References 7

Part 1 Search and Recovery of Burnt Human Remains from the Fire Scene

2 Fire Environments and Characteristic Burn Patterns of Human Remains from Four Common Types of Fatal Fire Scenes 13
Elayne Pope

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Experimental Research of Fire and Human Bodies 14

2.3 How the Human Body Burns 14

2.4 Variables of Fire Environments 17

2.5 Structure Fires 18

2.6 Burning Directly on the Floor 19

2.7 The Body on Furnishings: Couches and Chairs 19

2.8 The Body on Furnishings: Bed 21

2.9 Loss of the Floor 22

2.10 Collapse into a Lower Level 23

2.11 Vehicle Fires 24

2.12 Driver and Passenger Space 25

2.13 Rear Passenger Space with Bench Seats 26

2.14 Trunk Environment 26

2.15 Confined Space Fires 28

2.16 Outdoor Space Fires 29

2.17 Ignitable Liquids on Bodies 29

2.18 Burning Outdoor Debris Piles 30

2.19 Post-Fire Fragmentation of Burnt Bones 31

2.20 Suppression 32

2.21 Recovery and Transport from Fatal Fire Scenes 33

2.22 Conclusions 35

References 35

3 Recovery and Interpretation of Human Remains from Fatal Fire Scenes 37
Alexandra R. Klales; Allison Nesbitt; Dennis C. Dirkmaat and Luis L. Cabo

3.1 Introduction 37

3.2 Summary of Fires in the USA 39

3.3 Statement of the Problem 39

3.4 Current Fatal Fire Victim Recovery Protocols 42

3.5 NIJ Protocols 43

3.6 Special Circumstances 51

3.7 Conclusions 55

References 55

4 Considerations to Maximize Recovery of Post-mortem Dental Information to Facilitate Identification of Severely Incinerated Human Remains 59
John Berketa and Denice Higgins

4.1 Introduction 59

4.2 Identification 59

4.3 Documentation 60

4.4 Preparation 61

4.5 Prepacked Scene Equipment 61

4.6 Scene Arrival 63

4.7 Safety Issues 63

4.8 Overall Scene Evaluation 65

4.9 Considerations Regarding DNA Evidence 66

4.10 Considerations Regarding Dental Evidence 67

4.11 Moving the Victim 69

4.12 Conclusions 71

References 71

Part 2 Examination and Identification of Burnt Human Remains

5 Methods for Analyzing Burnt Human Remains 75
Amanda N. Williams

5.1 Anthropological Methods for Classifying Burnt Remains 76

5.2 Medicolegal Classification Methods 78

5.3 Need for New Model within the Forensic Sciences 79

5.4 A New Classification System 80

5.5 Best Practices in Applying this New Model 83

5.6 Case Study #1 83

5.7 Case Study #2 86

5.8 Case Study #3 88

5.9 Case Study #4 90

5.10 Case Study #5 92

5.11 Broader Implications 95

5.12 Conclusions 95

Acknowledgments 96

References 96

6 Burnt Human Remains and Forensic Medicine 99
Sarah Ellingham; Joe Adserias-Garriga and Peter Ellis

6.1 Fire Death Statistics 99

6.2 Statistics of Manner of Fire-Related Deaths 100

6.2.1 Prevalence of Self-Immolation 100

6.2.2 Prevalence of Criminal Immolation 101

6.3 Fire Damage to the Body 102

6.4 Classification of the Degree of Fire Damage 103

6.5 Medicolegal Determination of Cause of Death 105

6.6 Medicolegal Determination of Manner of Death 106

6.7 The Use of Post-Mortem Imaging for the Analysis of Burn Victims 108

6.8 Conclusion 110

Acknowledgments 110

References 110

7 Skeletal Alteration of Burnt Remains through Fire Exposure 113
Joe Adserias-Garriga

7.1 Assessment of the Severity of the Thermal Damage in the Forensic Context 114

7.2 Soft Tissue Alterations by Fire Exposure 115

7.3 Bone Alteration by Fire Exposure 116

7.4 Teeth Alteration by Fire Exposure 120

7.5 Signature Changes in Skeletal Elements after Cremation 122

7.6 Conclusions 129

References 130

8 Challenges of Biological Profile Estimation from Burnt Remains 133
Tim J.U. Thompson

8.1 Why Does Burning Affect Methods of Identification? 134

8.2 How Does the Context of Burning Impede the Creation of Biological Profiles? 135

8.3 Challenges of Biological Profile Estimation of Burnt Remains 137

8.3.1 Morphological Methods 137

8.3.2 Metric Methods 139

8.3.3 Other Approaches to Biological Profile Estimation 140

8.4 Conclusions 142

References 142

9 Victim Identification: The Role of Incinerated Dental Materials 147
Peter J. Bush; Mary A. Bush and Raymond Miller

9.1 Introduction 147

9.2 Microstructural Changes in Teeth after Incineration 148

9.3 Structural Changes Due to Restorative Procedures 149

9.4 Case Reports 151

9.4.1 Case Report 1: Airline Crash 151

9.4.2 Case Report 2: Double Homicide 161

9.5 Conclusions 165

References 166

10 Techniques for the Differentiation of Blunt Force Sharp Force and Gunshot Traumas from Heat Fractures in Burnt Remains 167
Hanna Friedlander; Megan Moore and Pamela Mayne Correia

10.1 Introduction 167

10.2 Bone Fracture Biomechanics: Fresh Bone 168

10.3 Bone Fracture Biomechanics: Stages of Thermal Damage 170

10.4 Heat Fractures 171

10.5 Blunt Force Trauma in Burnt Remains 172

10.6 Sharp Force Trauma in Burnt Remains 175

10.7 Gunshot Trauma in Burnt Remains 177

10.8 Case Study: 3D Modelling of Traumatic and Heat Fractures in Cranial and Irregular Bone 179

10.9 Discussion 182

10.10 Conclusions 184

Acknowledgments 185

Permissions 185

References 185

Part 3 Analytical Approaches to the Analysis of Burnt Bone

11 Biochemical Alterations of Bone Subjected to Fire 193
Sarah Ellingham and Sara C. Zapico

11.1 The Biological and Chemical Makeup of Fresh Bone 193

11.1.1 Introduction 193

11.2 Bone Transformation When Subjected to Heat 195

11.3 Analytical Approaches to Observing Bone Transformation 196

11.3.1 Colorimetry 196

11.3.2 SEM-EDX 196

11.3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared-Spectroscopy 198

11.3.4 Raman Spectroscopy 200

11.3.5 X-Ray Diffraction 201

11.3.6 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 202

11.3.7 Amino Acid Racemization 202

11.4 DNA 204

11.5 Changes to the Bone at Different Temperatures 205

11.5.1 100°C Exposure 205

11.5.2 200°C Exposure 206

11.5.3 300°C Exposure 206

11.5.4 400°C Exposure 207

11.5.5 500°C Exposure 207

11.5.6 600°C Exposure 207

11.5.7 700°C Exposure 207

11.5.8 800°C Exposure 208

11.5.9 900°C Exposure 208

11.5.10 1000°C Exposure 208

11.6 Conclusion 208

Acknowledgment 209

References 209

12 DNA Profiling from Burnt Remains 213
Sara C. Zapico and Rebecca Stone-Gordon

12.1 Introduction 213

12.2 Research Studies on Burnt Remains 214

12.3 Forensic Cases 218

12.4 Alternative Approaches and New Technologies 221

12.4.1 Assessment of DNA Damage 221

12.4.2 Alternatives for DNA Extraction 222

12.4.3 New Technologies 223

12.5 Conclusions 225

References 226

13 Applying Colorimetry to the Study of Low Temperature Thermal Changes in Bone 229
Christopher W. Schmidt and Alexandria McDaniel

13.1 Introduction 229

13.2 Colorimetry 230

13.3 Challenges of Colorimetry 232

13.4 Case Study 233

13.5 Conclusion 236

References 236

14 The Use of Histology to Distinguish Animal from Human Burnt Bone with Reference to Some Limitations 241
Pamela Mayne Correia; Kalyna Horocholyn and Kassandra Pointer

14.1 Introduction 241

14.2 Bone Tissue 242

14.2.1 Primary Bone Tissue 243

14.2.2 Secondary Bone 252

14.3 Vertebrate Histology 254

14.4 Burnt Bone Histology 256

14.5 Case Study for Comparison of Histology of Cremated Bone 259

14.5.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis for Case Study 259

14.6 Discussion 264

14.7 Conclusion 266

References 267

15 Isotope Analysis from Cremated Remains 273
Christophe Snoeck

15.1 Introduction 273

15.2 Infrared Analyses 274

15.3 Radiocarbon Dating 276

15.4 Isotope Analyses 277

15.4.1 Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Ratios 277

15.4.2 Strontium Isotope Ratios and Concentrations 281

15.5 Archaeological Case Studies 282

15.5.1 Stonehenge 282

15.5.2 Meuse Basin Belgium and the Netherlands 283

15.6 Conclusions 285

Acknowledgments 285

References 285

16 The Application of Imaging to Heat-Induced Bone 291
Rachael M. Carew and David Errickson

16.1 Introduction 291

16.2 Technological Progression 292

16.3 The Current Technology 294

16.3.1 Two-Dimensional Imaging 294

16.3.2 Three-Dimensional Imaging 295

16.4 The Application of Imaging to Heat-Induced and Burnt Bodies 299

16.4.1 Locating and Identifying Burnt Bone 299

16.4.2 Visual Capture and Documentation for Recording and Archiving 300

16.4.3 Quantifying and Analyzing Burnt Remains 301

16.4.4 Reconstruction 302

16.4.5 Ethical and Legal Considerations within the Forensic Context 305

16.5 Discussion and Conclusion 306

References 308

17 The First Reference Collection for the Research of Burnt Human Skeletal Remains Stemming from the 21st Century Identified Skeletal Collection (Portugal) 313
David Gonçalves; Calil Makhoul; Maria Teresa Ferreira and Eugénia Cunha

17.1 Introduction 313

17.1.1 The Challenge Posed by Burnt Skeletal Remains 313

17.1.2 Changing the Paradigm 315

17.1.3 The 21st Century Identified Skeletal Collection 320

17.1.4 Preparing the Skeletons 321

17.1.5 Composition of the Collection 323

17.2 Research Potential 324

17.3 Final Comments 327

Acknowledgments 328

References 328

Part 4 Case Studies

18 Analysis of Burnt Human Remains: Statistical Perspectives from Casework in Forensic Anthropology 337
Douglas H. Ubelaker; Cassandra M. DeGaglia and Haley Khosrowshahi

18.1 Introduction 337

18.2 Materials and Methods 337

18.3 Results 339

18.4 Discussion 342

18.5 Conclusions 344

Literature Cited 344

19 The Challenge of Burnt Remains from the Brazilian “Microwave Oven” 345
Melina Calmon Silva; Eugénia Cunha and Yara Vieira Lemos

19.1 Introduction 345

19.2 Brazilian Homicide Rates 346

19.3 The Relationship between Homicide and Drugs 347

19.4 The “Microwave Oven” Modality of Death / Disposability of Human Remains 348

19.4 Phases of Rubber Tire Combustion 350

19.5 The Challenges of Investigating “Microwave Oven” Deaths 351

19.6 The Role of Forensic Anthropology 353

19.6.1 Case Study 1 354

19.6.2 Case Study 2 359

19.7 Conclusion 365

Conflicts of Interest 366

Ethical Approval 366

Acknowledgments 366

References 367

20 Recovery and Identification of Fatal Fire Victims from the 2018 Northern California Camp Fire Disaster 371
Colleen Milligan; Alison Galloway; Ashley Kendell; Lauren Zephro; P. Willey and Eric Bartelink

20.1 Overview of the Camp Fire 371

20.2 Wildfire Burn Environments and Condition of Remains 374

20.3 Field to Morgue: What’s Important for Identification Efforts? 375

20.4 Morgue Identification 379

20.5 Conclusions 381

References 381

21 Recovery and Identification of Burnt Remains in a Military Theatre of Operations: The Warrior Six 383
Julie Roberts

21.1 Introduction 383

21.1.1 Improvised Explosive Devices and Blast Injuries 384

21.1.2 The Effects of Heat on Bone 384

21.2 Background to the Case 385

21.3 Assessment of the Vehicle and Recovered Remains 387

21.4 Excavation Strategy and Methodology 390

21.5 Examination of the Remains in the Temporary Mortuary 394

21.6 Examinations in the Role 3 Hospital 398

21.6.1 Soldier A 398

21.6.2 Soldier B 398

21.6.3 Soldier C 399

21.6.4 Soldier D 399

21.6.5 Soldier E 400

21.6.6 Soldier F 400

21.7 Post-mortem Examinations and Positive Identification in the UK 401

21.8 Conclusions 403

Acknowledgments 403

References 403

22 Volcanoes Bones and Heat: The Case of the AD 79 Victims of Vesuvius 407
Pier paolo Petrone

22.1 Introduction 407

22.2 The AD 79 Eruption of Vesuvius 408

22.3 The Date of the Eruption 410

22.4 Historical and Archaeological Context of the Discovery 411

22.5 Bioarchaeological and Taphonomic Study 413

22.6 The Causes of Death 418

22.7 The Most Recent Studies 420

22.8 An Exceptional Discovery 427

22.9 Conclusions 430

References 431

Index 437

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