Practical Research: Planning and Design

, by Leedy, Paul D.; Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis

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ISBN: 9780139603600 | 0139603603
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 1/1/2001

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Written in uncommonly engaging, lucid, and elegant prose, this book is an "understand-it-yourself, do-it-yourself" manual designed to help readers understand the fundamental structure of quality research and the methodical process that leads to genuinely significant results. & It guides the reader, step-by-step, from the selection of a problem to study, through the process of conducting authentic research, to the preparation of a completed report, with practical suggestions based on a solid theoretical framework and sound pedagogy. This book will show readers two things: 1) that quality research demands planning and design; and, 2) how their own research projects can be executed effectively and professionally. For researchers and research analysts in any discipline.

Introduction

xvii

PART I THE FUNDAMENTALS

(46)

What Is Research?

(11)

What Research Is Not

(1)

What Research Is

(5)

Discovering the Discipline of Research

(1)

Browsing the Periodicals Section of the Library

(1)

Computer Prompt: Finding Journals on the Internet

(1)

Practical Application: Evaluating the Research of Others

(1)

Checklist: Reflective questions to consider when evaluating research

(1)

Guidelines: Benefiting from Others' Research

(1)

For Further Reading

(1)

Tools of Research

(33)

General Tools of Research

(1)

The Library and Its Resources as a Tool of Research

(4)

The Library of the Quiet Past

(1)

The Library of the Stormy Present

(1)

How to Access Knowledge Quickly and Efficiently

(3)

Computer Prompt: The Computer and Its Software as a Tool of Research

(3)

Taking Advantage of the Internet

(3)

Accessing the Internet

(1)

Learning More About the Internet

(1)

Practical Application: Using the Internet to Facilitate Communication

(1)

Practical Application: Using E-Mail

(1)

Guidelines: Getting Started on E-Mail

(1)

Measurement as a Tool of Research

(8)

Measuring Insubstantial Phenomena: An Example

(3)

Interpretation of the Data

(1)

Four Scales of Measurement

(3)

Validity and Reliability of Measurement

(1)

Statistics as a Tool of Research

(1)

The Lure of Statistics

(1)

Primary Functions of Statistics

(1)

The Human Mind as a Tool of Research

(4)

Deductive Logic

(1)

Inductive Reasoning

(1)

The Scientific Method

(1)

Critical Thinking

(1)

Facility with Language as a Tool of Research

(2)

The Value of Knowing Two or More Languages

(1)

The Importance of Writing

(1)

Practical Application: Communicating Effectively Through Writing

(1)

Guidelines: Writing to Communicate

(2)

Computer Prompt: Using a Word Processor

(1)

Practical Application: Identifying Important Tools in Your Discipline

(1)

Checklist: Interviewing an Expert Researcher

(1)

Reflections on Significant Research

(1)

For Further Reading

(3)

PART II FOCUSING YOUR RESEARCH EFFORTS

(98)

The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process

(21)

Finding Research Projects

(2)

Practical Application: Identifying and Describing the Research Problem

(1)

Guidelines: Finding a Legitimate Problem

(1)

Guidelines: Stating the Research Problem

(5)

Checklist: Stating the research problem

(1)

Dividing the Research Problem into Subproblems

(3)

Subproblems Versus Pseudosubproblems

(1)

Characteristics of Subproblems

(1)

Identifying Subproblems

(1)

Computer Prompt: Using Brainstorming Software

(1)

Every Problem Needs Further Delineation

(3)

Stating the Hypotheses and/or Research Questions

(1)

Delimiting the Research

(1)

Defining the Terms

(1)

Stating the Assumptions

(1)

Importance of the Study

(1)

Ordering the Topics in a Research Proposal

(1)

A Sample Research Proposal

(1)

Dissertation Analysis 1

(2)

Practical Application: Writing and Evaluating a Proposal

(1)

Checklist: Evaluating your research plan

(1)

Practical Application: Reappraising a Proposed Research Problem

(1)

Guidelines: Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem

(1)

For Further Reading

(2)

The Review of the Related Literature

(21)

Understanding the Role of the Review

(1)

Beginning Your Search for Related Literature

(1)

The Library's Book Collection

(1)

Computer Prompt: Accessing a Library Catalog from Home

(2)

Indexes, Abstracts, and Other General References

(2)

Computer Prompt: Using CD-ROM Technology

(1)

Online Searches

(1)

Additional Resources for Your Literature Review

(1)

Government Publications

(1)

The World Wide Web

(1)

Computer Prompt: Searching the Web

(1)

Using the Citations and References Lists of Those Who Have Gone Before

(1)

Practical Application: Conducting a Literature Search

(2)

Guidelines: Using Your Library Time Efficiently

(2)

Organizing the Information You Have Collected

(1)

Computer Prompt: Creating Computer Databases

(1)

Knowing When to Quit

(3)

Practical Application: Beginning Your Review of the Related Literature

(1)

Evaluating, Organizing, and Synthesizing the Literature

(1)

Practical Application: Writing the Section on the Related Literature

(1)

Guidelines: Writing a Clear and Cohesive Review

(2)

A Sample Research Proposal

(1)

Dissertation Analysis 2

(2)

For Further Reading

(2)

Planning Your Research Design

(31)

Planning Your Research

(3)

The Basic Format of All Research

(2)

Research Planning Versus Research Methodology

(1)

General Criteria for a Research Project

(1)

The Data: Their Nature and Role in Research

(4)

What Are Data?

(1)

Data Are Transient and Ever-Changing

(1)

Primary Data Versus Secondary Data

(2)

Criteria for the Admissibility of Data

(1)

Identifying Appropriate Measurement Instruments

(2)

Determining the Validity of Measurement Instruments

(1)

Determining the Reliability of Measurement Instruments

(1)

Linking Data and Research Methodology

100

(3)

Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

101

(2)

Considering the Validity of Your Method

103

(4)

Internal Validity

103

(2)

External Validity

105

(1)

Validity in Qualitative Research

106

(1)

Ethical Issues in Research

107

(4)

Protection from Harm

107

(1)

Informed Consent

107

(1)

Right to Privacy

108

(1)

Honesty with Professional Colleagues

108

(2)

Internal Review Boards

110

(1)

Professional Codes of Ethics

111

(1)

Planning for Data Collection

111

(1)

Practical Application: Choosing a Research Approach

112

(1)

Guidelines: Deciding Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach

112

(1)

Practical Application: Judging the Feasibility of the Research Project

113

(1)

Checklist: Estimation sheet to determine the feasibility of the research project

114

(2)

When You Can't Anticipate Everything in Advance: The Value of a Pilot Study

116

(1)

Practical Application: Establishing Research Criteria

117

(1)

Justifying the Research Methodology

117

(1)

Practical Application: Developing a Plan of Attack

118

(1)

Computer Prompt: Using Project Management Software and Electronic Planners

118

(1)

Keeping an Optimistic and Task-Oriented Outlook

118

(2)

For Further Reading

120

(2)

Writing the Research Proposal

122

(23)

Researcher and Architect: Planners in Common

122

(1)

Characteristics of a Proposal

123

(3)

A Proposal Is a Straightforward Document

124

(1)

A Proposal Is Not a Literary Production

124

(1)

A Proposal Is Clearly Organized

124

(2)

Formatting a Research Proposal

126

(2)

Formatting Headings and Subheadings

127

(1)

Practical Application: Writing Your Proposal

128

(1)

Guidelines: Writing the First Draft

128

(1)

Guidelines: Revising Your Proposal

129

(1)

Computer Prompt: Using Word Processing to Write Your Proposal

130

(3)

The Importance of Interpreting the Data

133

(1)

Practical Application: Planning Your Interpretation of the Data

133

(1)

Guidelines: Describing Your Treatment of the Data

133

(2)

Using a Summary Graphic

135

(1)

Common Weaknesses in Research Proposals

135

(2)

Practical Application: Strengthening Your Proposal

137

(1)

Checklist: Features detracting from proposal effectiveness

137

(1)

Final Thoughts About Proposal Writing

138

(1)

A Sample Research Proposal

139

(1)

Dissertation Analysis 3

139

(3)

For Further Reading

142

(3)

PART III QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

145

(44)

Qualitative Research

147

(25)

The Nature of the Research Problem and Planning in Qualitative Research

148

(1)

When to Choose a Qualitative Approach

148

(1)

Qualitative Research Designs

149

(9)

Case Study

149

(2)

Ethnography

151

(2)

Phenomenological Study

153

(1)

Grounded Theory Study

154

(1)

Content Analysis

155

(3)

Collecting Data in Qualitative Research

158

(1)

Observations

158

(1)

Interviews

159

(1)

Practical Application: Conducting Interviews in a Qualitative Study

159

(1)

Guidelines: Conducting a Productive Interview

159

(1)

Computer Prompt: Using Technology to Facilitate Data Collection and Transcription

160

(1)

Organizing and Analyzing the Data from Qualitative Studies

160

(2)

Computer Prompt: Using Computer Databases to Facilitate Data Organization and Interpretation

162

(1)

Practical Application: Planning a Qualitative Study

162

(1)

Checklist: Planning a qualitative study

163

(1)

Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research

164

(1)

Practical Application: Evaluating a Qualitative Study

165

(1)

Checklist: Evaluating qualitative research studies

165

(1)

A Sample Dissertation

166

(1)

Dissertation Analysis 4

166

(4)

For Further Reading

170

(2)

Historical Research

172

(17)

Historical Research: The Meaning of Events

172

(1)

Data Sources in Historical Research

173

(1)

Computer Prompt: Electronic Databases and Historical Data

173

(1)

Evaluating and Interpreting Historical Data

174

(1)

External Evidence

174

(1)

Internal Evidence

174

(1)

Considering Historical Time and Historical Space

175

(4)

Historical Time

176

(2)

Historical Space

178

(1)

Practical Application: Handling Historical Data Systematically

179

(2)

A Paper-Pencil Approach: Making Note Cards and Bibliography Cards

180

(1)

Computer Prompt: A Computerized Approach to Collecting and Organizing Your Data

181

(1)

Psychological or Conceptual Historical Research

181

(1)

The Fascination of Searching for Roots

182

(1)

Practical Application: Historical Research Writing

182

(1)

Checklist: Comparing two records of a significant event in history

182

(1)

Guidelines: Writing the Historical Research Report

183

(1)

A Sample Dissertation

184

(1)

Dissertation Analysis 5

184

(3)

For Further Reading

187

(2)

PART IV QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

189

(94)

Descriptive Research

187

(42)

Descriptive Research Designs

191

(6)

Correlational Research

191

(3)

Developmental Designs

194

(1)

Observation Studies

195

(1)

Survey Research

196

(1)

Using Checklists and Rating Scales

197

(2)

Practical Application: Planning and Conducting Interviews

199

(1)

Guidelines: Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study

200

(2)

An Example in International Relations

200

(2)

Practical Application: Constructing and Administering a Questionnaire

202

(1)

Guidelines: Constructing a Questionnaire

202

(2)

Guidelines: Maximizing Your Return Rate for a Mailed Questionnaire

204

(5)

Computer Prompt: Using Databases, Word Processing, and Mail Merge to Facilitate Questionnaire Mailing

209

(1)

Computer Prompt: Using Scanners to Facilitate Questionnaire Data

210

(1)

Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Study

210

(14)

Sampling Designs

211

(9)

Sampling in Survey Research

220

(2)

Identifying a Sufficient Sample Size

222

(1)

Bias in Research Sampling

222

(2)

Practical Application: Population Analysis for a Descriptive Survey

224

(1)

Checklist: Analyzing a population

224

(1)

Computer Prompt: Computerizing Data Collection in Descriptive Research

225

(1)

Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research

226

(1)

Some Final Suggestions

227

(1)

For Further Reading

227

(2)

Experimental and Causal-Comparative Designs

229

(23)

The Importance of Control

230

(3)

Independent and Dependent Variables

233

(1)

Examples of Experimental Research Designs

234

(5)

Pre-Experimental Designs

234

(2)

True Experimental Designs

236

(1)

Quasi-Experimental Designs

237

(2)

Causal-Comparative Designs

239

(3)

Factorial Designs

242

(3)

Testing Your Hypotheses, and Beyond

245

(1)

Practical Application: Identifying a Research Design

245

(1)

A Sample Dissertation

246

(1)

Dissertation Analysis 6

247

(3)

For Further Reading

250

(2)

Statistical Techniques for Analyzing Quantitative Data

252

(31)

Exploring the Data

252

(3)

Drawing Conclusions from the Data

255

(1)

Computer Prompt: Spreadsheets and the Description and Analysis of Data

255

(2)

The Role of Statistics in Making Data More Meaningful

257

(2)

Functions of Statistics

259

(1)

Statistics as Estimates of Population Parameters

260

(1)

Considering the Nature of the Data

260

(4)

Parametric versus Nonparametric Statistics

263

(1)

Descriptive Statistics

264

(8)

Points of Central Tendency

264

(4)

Measures of Variation: Dispersion or Deviation

268

(3)

Measures of Relationship: Correlation

271

(1)

Inferential Statistics

272

(6)

Estimation

273

(2)

Hypothesis Testing

275

(3)

Practical Application: Analyzing Data in a Quantitative Study

278

(1)

Checklist: Questions to consider when choosing a statistical procedure

278

(1)

Computer Prompt: Using Statistical Software Packages

279

(1)

For Further Reading

280

(3)

PART V PREPARING THE RESEARCH REPORT

283

(24)

Technical Details: Style, Format, and Organization of the Research Report

285

(22)

Getting Started

285

(1)

Computer Prompt: ``Surfing'' the Internet for Writing Assistance

286

(1)

Practical Application: Critiquing a Research Report

287

(1)

Checklist: Criteria for critiquing a research report

287

(1)

Planning a Research Report

288

(4)

Description of the Research Problem

289

(1)

Description of the Method

289

(1)

Presentation of the Data

290

(1)

Interpretation of the Data

290

(1)

Concluding the Report

291

(1)

A Graphic Organizer for the Research Report

292

(1)

Front Matter and End Matter

293

(4)

Preliminary Pages

293

(1)

Citations and Reference Lists

294

(2)

Endnotes and Footnotes

296

(1)

Appendix Content

297

(1)

Computer Prompt: Style Manual Assistance on the Internet

297

(1)

Organizing the Research Report

297

(2)

Preparing the Report

299

(2)

Style of Prose

300

(1)

Principles of Writing

300

(1)

Practical Application: Developing a Writing Schedule

301

(1)

Guidelines: Developing a Workable Schedule

302

(1)

Beyond the Unpublished Research Report: Presenting and Publishing

303

(1)

Paper Presentations

303

(1)

Journal Articles

303

(1)

Sharing Authorship

304

(1)

A Closing Thought

304

(1)

For Further Reading

305

(2)

References

307

(4)

Index

311

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Practical Research: Planning and Design

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Table of Contents

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