Produce Degradation

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ISBN: 9780849319020 | 0849319021
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 3/16/2005

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Produce Degradation is the first book to focus on the processes that result in produce quality deterioration and their prevention. It addresses the mechanism of reactions that affect produce quality under conditions from the farm to the table. It also reviews the degradative changes and conditions that favor these processes, such as the biochemistry, microbiology, physiology, polymer and cellular science, and genetics. Written by experts in the field, topics include the mechanisms of nutrient loss, pigment degradation, cell tissue and membrane degradation, the genetic basis of product stability, the role of water and moisture in produce quality, and prevention during transport.

Genomic Exploration of Produce Degradation

(18)

J. Chen

Introduction

(2)

Genotype vs. Phenotype

(1)

Sequence Genomics

(6)

Whole Genome Sequencing

(2)

Sample Sequencing

(1)

Sequences from rrn Operons

(1)

Other Genes

(2)

DNA Genomics

(5)

DNA-DNA Homology

(1)

Random Genome Sampling

(2)

Genomic Subtraction

(3)

Summary

(5)

References

(5)

Role of Cuticles in Produce Quality and Preservation

(36)

Gregory M. Glenn

Bor-Sen Chiou

Syed H. Imam

Delilah F. Wood

William J. Orts

Introduction

(1)

General Structure and Composition of Plant Cuticles

(4)

Cuticle Model

(1)

Cuticle Composition

(1)

Cutin

(3)

Waxes

(1)

Cuticular Structure and Composition in Produce

(2)

Cuticular Growth and Development

(1)

Variability in Cuticle Structure and Composition

(1)

Barrier Properties of the Cuticle

(4)

Barrier to Liquids and Gases

(3)

Barrier to Pathogens

(1)

Role of Cuticle in Host/Pathogen Response

(2)

Role of Cuticle on Mechanical Properties Related to Quality

(1)

Role of Cuticle in Aesthetic Quality

(1)

Role of Cuticle on Physiological Disorders

(11)

Chilling Injury

(1)

Browning

(1)

Purple Spot

(1)

Scald

(1)

Cuticular Cracking

(1)

Cherry

(5)

Apple

(2)

Tomato

(1)

Other Produce

(2)

Summary

(10)

References

(9)

Maturity, Ripening, and Quality Relationships

(24)

Peter M.A. Toivonen

Thomas H.J. Beveridge

Introduction

(1)

Effects of Maturation and Ripening

(7)

Texture

(3)

Flavor

(2)

Nutritional Quality

(1)

Shelf Life

(1)

Association of Hormonal Changes in Relation to Quality

(4)

Endogenous Growth Hormones

(1)

Exogenously Applied Hormones

(1)

Ethylene

(2)

Cytokinins

(1)

Gibberellic Acid

(1)

Methyl Jasmonate

(1)

1-Methylcyclopropene

(1)

Respiratory Metabolism in Relation to Quality

(2)

Nonclimacteric Fruits and Vegetables

(2)

Climacteric Fruits

(1)

Quality Deterioration Management through Maturity/Ripeness Selection

(2)

Summary

(8)

References

(7)

Mechanical Injury of Fresh Produce

(38)

Olusola Lamikanra

Introduction

(1)

Wound Response

(3)

Tissue Damage

(3)

Wound Severity

(2)

Mechanical Handling

(1)

Fresh-Cut Produce

(1)

Harvesting

(3)

Storage

(2)

Detection

(1)

Metabolic Changes

(3)

Respiration

(1)

Ethylene

(1)

Phenolic Compounds

(1)

Enzymatic Effects

(4)

Texture

(1)

Temperature Effect

100

(3)

Summary

103

(14)

References

103

(14)

Packaging and Produce Degradation

117

(38)

Patrick Varoquaux

Ibrahim Sani Ozdemir

Introduction

118

(1)

MAP Optimization

118

(23)

Respiration Rates

118

(2)

How to Measure Respiration Rates

120

(1)

Influence of Temperature

121

(1)

Influence of Gas Composition on Respiration Rate and Physiological Disorders

122

(3)

Influence of Other Parameters

125

(2)

Optimal Gas Composition

127

(1)

Determination Procedure (Controlled Atmosphere)

127

(1)

Effect of Gas on Ethylene Biosynthesis and Action

128

(1)

Effect of Other Gases

129

(1)

Effect of Gas on Microorganisms

130

(3)

Effect of Gas on Quality Attributes

133

(8)

Packaging Conditions

141

(3)

Modified Atmosphere Packaging

141

(2)

Principal Properties of Films

143

(1)

Simulation of Modified Atmospheres

143

(1)

Conclusion

144

(11)

Water Transmission Rate

145

(1)

Consumer Acceptance of Appearance and Handling

145

(1)

Industrial Acceptability of the Film's Mechanical Resistance, Compatibility with Packaging Machines, Thermo-Sealability, and Printing Qualities

146

(1)

References

146

(9)

Flavor and Volatile Metabolism in Produce

155

(36)

Keith R. Cadwallader

Introduction

156

(1)

Flavor Components of Fruits and Vegetables

157

(4)

Nonvolatile Taste Compounds

157

(1)

Volatile Aroma Compounds

157

(1)

Aroma Biogenesis

157

(1)

Esters

158

(1)

Lactones

159

(1)

Terpenoids

159

(1)

Norisoprenoids

159

(1)

Furanones

160

(1)

Sulfur-Containing Compounds

160

(1)

Aromatic Compounds

161

(1)

Lipoxygenase-Derived Alcohols and Aldehydes

161

(1)

Fruit and Vegetable Flavor Systems

161

(7)

Fruit Flavors

162

(1)

Pome Fruit

162

(1)

Stone Fruit

162

(1)

Melon, Cucumber, and Squash

163

(1)

Tomato

163

(1)

Small Fruit

163

(1)

Citrus

164

(2)

Tropical Fruit

166

(1)

Vegetable Flavors

167

(1)

Lettuce

167

(1)

Celery

167

(1)

Carrot

167

(1)

Bell Pepper

167

(1)

Broccoli

168

(1)

Onion

168

(1)

Factors Influencing Flavor and Flavor Stability

168

(7)

Temperature

169

(1)

Ethylene

169

(1)

Controlled and Modified Atmospheric Storage

170

(1)

MAP of Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables

171

(1)

Aroma Modification by Exogenous Volatiles

172

(1)

Coatings and Wraps

172

(1)

Curing

172

(1)

Irradiation

173

(1)

Off-Flavor and Taints

173

(1)

Anaerobiosis and Off-Flavor Development

173

(1)

Ethylene-Induced Off-Flavors

174

(1)

Sanitizers and Chemical Treatments

174

(1)

Microbial Sources

175

(1)

Conclusions

175

(16)

References

175

(16)

Produce Color and Appearance

191

(32)

Henryk Daun

Importance of Produce Appearance

191

(1)

Carotenoids

192

(6)

Chemical Definition and Structure

193

(1)

Occurrence and Biosynthesis

194

(1)

Postharvest Degradation

195

(2)

Progress in Analytical Methodology

197

(1)

Chlorophylls

198

(2)

Chemical Definition and Structure

198

(1)

Degradation of Chlorophylls During Senescence, Storage, and Processing

199

(1)

Benzopyran Derivatives

200

(12)

Chemical Definition and Structure

200

(2)

Chemical Properties and Occurrence of Anthocyanins

202

(4)

Postharvest and Processing Changes of Anthocyanins

206

(1)

Progress in Analytical Methodology

207

(1)

Occurrence and Antioxidant Properties of Flavonoids

208

(2)

Postharvest and Processing Changes of Flavonoids

210

(2)

Betalains

212

(3)

Chemical Definition and Structure

212

(1)

Chemical Changes During Processing and Storage

213

(2)

Concluding Remarks

215

(8)

References

215

(8)

Nutrient Loss

223

(44)

Lorraine Weatherspoon

Theobald Mosha

Maria Nnyepi

Introduction

224

(1)

Overview of Nutritional Value of Produce

225

(5)

Macronutrients

226

(1)

Water

226

(1)

Proteins

226

(1)

Carbohydrates

227

(1)

Lipids

228

(1)

Micronutrients

228

(1)

Minerals

229

(1)

Vitamins

229

(1)

Healthy Nonnutrient Compounds

230

(4)

Flavor Compounds

230

(1)

Pigments

231

(1)

Phytonutrients

231

(3)

Enzymes and Hormones in Fruits and Vegetables

234

(1)

Pathways of Nutrient Loss

234

(3)

Preharvest

234

(1)

Harvesting

235

(1)

Transportation

235

(1)

Storage

236

(1)

Processing

236

(1)

Packaging

236

(1)

Factors Influencing Nutrient Content of Fruits and Vegetables

237

(3)

Maturity and Ripeness

237

(1)

Storage Conditions

238

(1)

Temperature and Relative Humidity

238

(1)

Packaging

239

(1)

Stability of Nutrients and Other Healthy Compounds in Fruit and Vegetables During Storage

240

(3)

Proteins

240

(1)

Carbohydrates

241

(1)

Lipids

241

(1)

Vitamins and Minerals

242

(1)

Pigmentation

242

(1)

Produce Treatment and Nutrient Quality

243

(5)

Preharvest Treatment

243

(1)

Postharvest Treatment

244

(1)

Heat Treatments

244

(3)

Chilling Treatments

247

(1)

Waxing

248

(1)

Coating with Edible Films

248

(1)

Nutritional Implications of Produce Processing

248

(10)

Blanching

250

(1)

Refrigeration and Freezing

250

(1)

Dehydration

251

(1)

Fermentation

252

(1)

Lactic Acid Fermentation

252

(1)

Acetic Acid Fermentation

253

(1)

Alkaline Fermentation

254

(1)

Probiotics

254

(2)

Use of Additives

256

(1)

Radurization

257

(1)

Summary

258

(9)

References

259

(8)

Water and Its Relation to Fresh Produce

267

(26)

Mawele Shamaila

Introduction

268

(1)

Chemical Composition, Structure, and Properties of Water

269

(2)

Polar Nature of Water

269

(1)

Properties of Water

269

(2)

Factors Responsible for Water Movement in Plant Systems

271

(1)

Diffusion, Bulk/Mass Flow, and Osmotic Movement of Water

271

(1)

Water Migration in Plant Tissues

272

(2)

External Factors Affecting Water Migration in Fresh Produce

274

(3)

Temperature

274

(2)

Relative Humidity

276

(1)

Pressure, Air Movement, and Light

276

(1)

Effect of Injury on Water Loss

277

(1)

Methods of Preventing Water Loss from Fresh Produce

278

(7)

Temperature

279

(1)

Cooling of Harvested Fresh Produce

280

(1)

Elevated Relative Humidity

281

(1)

Packaging of Fresh Produce

282

(1)

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) in Reducing Water Loss

283

(1)

Waxing of Fresh Produce

283

(1)

Processing Treatments

284

(1)

Air Movement and Air Pressure

285

(1)

Water Loss and Its Impact on Produce Quality

285

(2)

Appearance and Color

286

(1)

Texture

286

(1)

Nutritive Value

287

(1)

Conclusion

287

(6)

References

287

(6)

Mechanisms of Food Additives, Treatments, and Preservation Technology

293

(48)

Michal Voldrich

Mechanisms of Spoilage of Fresh and Processed Produce

294

(10)

Physiological Changes

294

(1)

Mechanical Damage

294

(1)

Temperature Injuries (Chilling, Freezing, and High-Temperature Injury)

294

(2)

Loss of Water

296

(1)

Undesirable Effects on Respiration

296

(1)

Enzymatic Changes

296

(2)

Important Enzymes

298

(1)

Chemical Changes

299

(3)

Microbiological Changes

302

(2)

Methods for Preserving Fresh and Processed Produce

304

(37)

Prevention of Physiological Changes

304

(1)

Temperature

304

(1)

Atmosphere

305

(2)

Humidity

307

(1)

Light

308

(1)

Mechanical Wounding

308

(2)

Prevention of Enzymatic Reactions

310

(1)

Application of Additives

310

(4)

Blanching

314

(3)

Protection Against Microbial Spoilage

317

(1)

Removal of Microorganisms from Food Products

317

(4)

Direct Inactivation of Microorganisms: Abiosis

321

(6)

Indirect Preservation Methods: Anabiosis

327

(6)

References

333

(8)

Role of Pesticides in Produce Production, Preservation, Quality, and Safety

341

(38)

Katerina Mastovska

Introduction

342

(1)

Positive Impacts of Pesticide Use in Produce Production

342

(29)

Insecticides

345

(1)

Major Classes of Insecticides and Their Modes of Action

345

(2)

Problems Caused by Insects in Produce Production and Their Control by Insecticides

347

(4)

Acaricides

351

(1)

Nematicides

352

(1)

Molluscicides

353

(1)

Fungicides

354

(1)

Classification of Fungicides, Their Application and Mode of Action

354

(3)

Problems Caused by Fungi in Produce Production and Their Control by Fungicides

357

(4)

Bactericides

361

(1)

Herbicides

361

(1)

Classification of Herbicides, Their Application and Mode of Action

362

(5)

Herbicide Selectivity

367

(1)

Rodenticides and Avicides

368

(1)

Plant Growth Regulators

368

(3)

Desiccants and Defoliants

371

(1)

Risks Associated with Pesticides and Strategies to Reduce Them

371

(2)

Summary

373

(6)

References

373

(6)

Microbial Ecology of Spoilage

379

(42)

M. L. Bari

Y. Sabina

S. Kawamoto

K. Isshiki

Introduction

380

(1)

Nature of Microorganisms on Fruits and Vegetables

381

(4)

Saprophytic Microorganisms

381

(1)

Pectinolytic Microorganisms

382

(1)

Foodborne Pathogens

382

(1)

Yeast and Mold

382

(3)

Growth of Bacteria on Vegetables

385

(14)

Decay of Vegetables by Bacteria

385

(1)

Factors That Influence Microbial Growth

386

(1)

Introduction

386

(1)

Intrinsic Factors

386

(7)

Extrinsic Factors

393

(5)

Microenvironments in Vegetables

398

(1)

Interactions Between Spoiling Bacteria

399

(3)

Antagonism

399

(1)

Metabiosis

400

(1)

Acylated Homoserine Lactone (AHL)-Based Communication

400

(2)

Ecological Factors Influencing Survival and Growth of Pathogens on Fruits and Vegetables

402

(19)

Behavior of Foodborne Pathogens on Fruits and Vegetables

402

(1)

Understanding the Ecosystem of Pathogens in Fresh Produce

403

(1)

Interactions with Epiphytic Microorganisms

403

(2)

Cohabitation with Other Microorganisms May Affect Survival and Growth of Pathogens

405

(2)

Behavior of Pathogens in Biofilms

407

(1)

References

408

(13)

Attachment of Bacterial Human Pathogens on Fruit and Vegetable Surfaces

421

(20)

Dike O. Ukuku

Ching-Hsing Liao

Shirley Gembeh

Introduction

421

(1)

Outbreaks of Foodborne Illness Associated with Produce

422

(1)

Surfaces of Fruits and Vegetables

423

(3)

Surface Characteristics

423

(1)

Native Microflora of Fruits and Vegetables

423

(1)

Types of Spoilage Microflora

423

(2)

Sources of Bacterial Pathogen Contamination

425

(1)

Attachment of Human Bacterial Pathogens on Fruits and Vegetables

426

(5)

Factors That Influence Bacterial Attachment

427

(3)

Factors Limiting Detachment of Microorganisms

430

(1)

Biofilm Formation on Produce Surfaces

430

(1)

Bacterial Degradation of Fruit and Vegetable Surfaces

431

(10)

Prevention of Microbial Contamination and Degradation of Produce

431

(2)

References

433

(8)

Bacterial Infiltration and Internalization in Fruits and Vegetables

441

(22)

Aubrey Mendonca

Introduction

442

(1)

Occurrence of Bacteria on Fruits and Vegetables

442

(1)

Bacterial Adhesion to Fruits and Vegetables

443

(2)

Bacterial Adhesion

443

(1)

Involvement of Bacterial Appendages

444

(1)

Extracellular Polysaccharides

445

(1)

Internalization of Bacteria in Fruits and Vegetables

445

(3)

Factors That Facilitate Internalization

445

(1)

Natural Openings

445

(1)

Microbial Damage

446

(1)

Damage by Insects and Birds

447

(1)

Physical Damage

447

(1)

Infiltration of Bacteria in Fruits and Vegetables

448

(7)

Factors Affecting Bacterial Infiltration

449

(1)

Temperature

449

(1)

Hydrostatic Pressure

450

(1)

Surfactants

451

(1)

Type of Cooling System

451

(1)

Control of Bacterial Infiltration

452

(1)

Barriers to Effective Control of Infiltration

452

(1)

Prevention of Infiltration

453

(2)

Survival and Growth of Internalized Bacteria

455

(1)

Conclusion

456

(1)

Future Research

456

(7)

References

457

(6)

Mechanisms of Microbial Spoilage of Fruits and Vegetables

463

(20)

Brendan A. Niemira

Christopher H. Sommers

Dike O. Ukuku

Introduction

464

(1)

Disease vs. Spoilage

464

(3)

Abiotic Spoilage and Its Relationship to Biotic Spoilage

464

(1)

Preharvest vs. Postharvest

465

(1)

Spoilage Organisms

466

(1)

Early Spoilage Pathogenesis Events: Overview

467

(6)

Plant Defenses

467

(2)

Pathogen Attack

469

(4)

Disease-Conducive Conditions

473

(1)

Case Studies of Key Pathogens

473

(7)

Categories of Produce

473

(1)

Perishable Produce

474

(1)

Leafy Produce

474

(1)

Cruciferous Produce

475

(1)

Fibrous Produce

475

(1)

Soft-Skinned Produce

476

(1)

Firm-Skinned Produce

477

(1)

Berries

477

(1)

Storable Produce and Key Spoilage Fungi and Bacteria

478

(1)

Roots and Tubers

478

(1)

Bulbs

479

(1)

Soft-Skinned Produce

479

(1)

Firm-Skinned Produce

480

(1)

Conclusions and Summary

480

(3)

Acknowledgments

481

(1)

References

481

(2)

Role of Fluorescent Pseudomonads and Their Pectolytic Enzymes in Spoilage of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce

483

(22)

Ching-Hsing Liao

Dike Ukuku

Introduction

484

(1)

PF Pseudomonads as a Major Cause of Produce Spoilage

485

(2)

Physiological Diversity of PF Pseudomonads

485

(1)

Occurrence of PF Pseudomonads on Fresh Produce

486

(1)

Biochemical Characterization of Pectate Lyase

487

(3)

Production of Pectic Enzymes and Other Depolymerases by PF Pseudomonads

487

(1)

Description of the Erwinia Pectic Enzyme System

488

(1)

Description of the Pseudomonas Pectic Enzyme System

489

(1)

Purification, Enzymatic Properties, and Tissue-Macerating Ability of Pseudomonas PLs

489

(1)

Molecular Genetic Analysis of PL Production by PF Pseudomonads

490

(2)

Analysis of Transposon (TN5) Mutants Deficient in PL Production and Secretion

490

(1)

Cloning and Characterization of the pel Genes from Non-Erwinia Pectolytic Bacteria

490

(1)

Mechanisms Regulating the Production and Secretion of PL

491

(1)

Interactions of PF Pseudomonads and Native Microflora on Fresh Produce

492

(1)

Interactions of PF Pseudomonads and Human Pathogens on Fresh Produce

493

(1)

Postharvest Treatments of Fresh Produce and Their Effects on PF Pseudomonads

494

(3)

Irradiation

495

(1)

Ozone

495

(1)

Chlorine

495

(1)

Hydrogen Peroxide

496

(1)

Organic Acids

496

(1)

Modified Atmosphere

496

(1)

Conclusion

497

(8)

Acknowledgment

497

(1)

References

497

(8)

Microbial Metabolites in Fruits and Vegetables

505

(24)

Keith Warriner

Svetlana Zivanovic

Introduction

506

(1)

Role and Function of Microbial Enzymes Associated with Fruits and Vegetables

507

(7)

Superoxide Dismutase, Catalase, and Glutathione

507

(1)

Laccasese, Polyphenol Oxidases, and Lipoxygenase

508

(1)

Pectinases

509

(1)

Cellulose- and Hemicellulose-Degrading Enzymes

510

(2)

Starch-Degrading Enzymes

512

(2)

Enzyme Transport in Microbes

514

(1)

Microbial Effects on Produce Flavor

514

(8)

Microbial Metabolites That Enhance Produce Quality

514

(2)

Microbial Metabolites and Vegetable Spoilage

516

(1)

Microbial Metabolites and Fruit Spoilage

517

(1)

Antimicrobial Agents from Microorganisms

518

(1)

Antibiotics

518

(2)

Bacteriocins

520

(1)

Mycotoxins

521

(1)

Regulation of Gene Expression in Microbes Associated with Plants

522

(2)

Quorum Sensing

522

(1)

Microbial Phytohormones

523

(1)

Conclusions

524

(5)

References

524

(5)

Microstructure of Produce Degradation

529

(34)

Delilah F. Wood

Syed H. Imam

Glen P. Sabellano

Paul R. Eyerly

William J. Orts

Gregory M. Glenn

Introduction

529

(1)

Inherent Preservation in Plant Architecture

530

(10)

Textural Characteristics

540

(5)

Architectural Decay and Microstructural Changes

545

(4)

Cell Collapse and Degradation

549

(4)

Strategies for Fruit Preservation and Improved Shelf Life

553

(2)

Specific Disorders and Their Impact on Produce Quality

555

(3)

Conclusion

558

(5)

References

558

(5)

Structure and Function of Complex Carbohydrates in Produce and Their Degradation Process

563

(36)

Syed Imam

Justin Shey

Delilah Wood

Greg Glenn

Bor-Sen Chiou

Maria Inglesby

Charles Ludvik

Artur Klamczynski

William Orts

Introduction

564

(1)

Chemistry, Functional Properties, and Reaction Mechanisms of Plant Carbohydrates

565

(11)

Starch

565

(5)

Cellulose

570

(2)

Hemicellulose, Pectin, and Other Interacting Cell Wall Polymers

572

(2)

Pectins

574

(2)

Molecular Mechanisms of Carbohydrate Degradation Mediated by Enzymes and Microbes

576

(4)

Starch Depolymerases

577

(1)

Cellulose Depolymerases

578

(1)

Pectin-Degrading Enzymes

579

(1)

Biochemical and Structural Changes in Produce in Response to Postharvest Stresses and Its Relationship to Carbohydrate Polymers

580

(5)

Strategies to Minimize Postharvest Damage to Carbohydrates

585

(14)

References

587

(12)

Temperature Effects on Produce Degradation

599

(50)

Justin R. Morris

Pamela L. Brady

The Need for Temperature Management

600

(1)

Effects of Temperature

600

(12)

Respiratory Activity and Storage Life

600

(8)

Ripening and Ethylene Production and Utilization

608

(1)

Moisture Loss

608

(2)

Decay Organisms

610

(1)

Vitamin Losses

611

(1)

Sugar--Starch Balance

611

(1)

Removal of Field Heat

612

(6)

Why Precool?

612

(2)

Precooling Methods

614

(1)

Cold Air Cooling

615

(2)

Hydrocooling

617

(1)

Package Icing

618

(1)

Vacuum Cooling

618

(1)

Responses to Temperature Extremes

618

(17)

Chilling Injury

619

(1)

Occurrence

619

(1)

Symptoms

620

(3)

Responses to Chilling Temperatures

623

(6)

Treatments to Alleviate Chilling Injury

629

(2)

Freezing Injury

631

(2)

High Temperatures

633

(2)

Temperature Effects on Specific Commodities

635

(8)

Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, and Yarns

635

(2)

Grapes

637

(2)

Peaches and Nectarines

639

(1)

Apples

639

(1)

Bananas

640

(1)

Citrus Fruits

641

(1)

Tomatoes

641

(1)

Fresh-Cut Produce

642

(1)

Summary

643

(6)

References

643

(6)

Index

649

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Produce Degradation

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials