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- ISBN: 9780817354251 | 0817354255
- Cover: Paperback
- Copyright: 1/1/2007
Organized into four sections, the twelve chapters of Rivers of Changeare concerned with prehistoric Native American societies in eastern North America and their transition from a hunting and gathering way of life to a reliance on food production. Written at different times over a decade, the chapters vary both in length and topical focus. They are joined together, however, by a number of shared ;rivers of change. ;
Bruce D. Smith is an archaeologist at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History
Introduction to the New Edition | p. xi |
Rivers of Change | |
Introduction: Fields of Opportunity, Rivers of Change | p. 3 |
The History of Maize in Eastern North America and the Existence of Premaize Farming Economies | p. 9 |
Early Gourds in the East-Introduced Tropical Domesticate or Indigenous Wild Plants? | p. 10 |
Plant Domestication in Eastern North America | p. 11 |
Premaize Farming Economies in Eastern North America | p. 13 |
Notes | p. 16 |
Literature Cited | p. 16 |
An Independent Center of Plant Domestication | |
The Floodplain Weed Theory of Plant Domestication in Eastern North America | p. 19 |
Introduction | p. 19 |
Edgar Anderson and the Plants of Open Habitats | p. 21 |
Jack Harlan, J. M. J. de Wet, and the Adaptive Syndrome of Domestication | p. 24 |
Technological Advance and Documenting Eastern Domesticates | p. 26 |
The Initial Appearance of Anthropogenic Open Areas in Eastern North America | p. 27 |
The Floodplain Niche of Indigenous Domesticates | p. 28 |
Conclusions | p. 29 |
Literature Cited | p. 32 |
The Independent Domestication of Indigenous Seed-Bearing Plants in Eastern North America | p. 35 |
Introduction: An Independent Origin | p. 35 |
The 1920s: Linton and "Various Small Grains in the Southeast" | p. 35 |
The 1930s: Gilmore and Jones | p. 36 |
The 1940s: Carter and Quimby | p. 37 |
The 1950s: Anderson and Fowler | p. 37 |
The 1960s: Yarnell and Struever | p. 37 |
The 1970s: Discovery of Middle Holocene Cucurbits | p. 38 |
Middle Holocene Cucurbits in the Eastern Woodlands | p. 40 |
Cucurbita Terminology and Taxonomy | p. 40 |
Cucurbita Rinds | p. 41 |
Cucurbita Seeds | p. 41 |
Geographical Range Arguments | p. 45 |
Alternative Explanations | p. 46 |
The Archaeobotanical Evidence for Initial Domestication of Seed-Bearing Plants | p. 49 |
Iva annua | p. 49 |
Helianthus annuus | p. 49 |
Chenopodium berlandieri | p. 50 |
The Fourth Millennium Transition | p. 50 |
The Domestication of Indigenous Seed Crops | p. 51 |
Early Holocene Foragers | p. 51 |
The Hypsithermal | p. 51 |
Sedentism and the Emergence of Domestilocalities | p. 52 |
The "Natural" Floodplain Habitat Situations of Initial Indigenous Domesticates | p. 53 |
Selective Pressures and the Coevolution of Domesticates within Domestilocalities | p. 54 |
Discussion: A Coevolutionary Explanation | p. 57 |
The Initial Establishment of Domestilocalities | p. 58 |
Selective Encouragement | p. 58 |
Deliberate Planting of Harvested Seeds | p. 58 |
Notes | p. 60 |
Acknowledgments | p. 62 |
Literature Cited | p. 62 |
Is It an Indigene or a Foreigner? | p. 67 |
Introduction | p. 67 |
Single Origin Explanations of the Late 1970s and 1980s | p. 68 |
The Emergence of a Multiple Origins Explanation for the Domestication of Cucurbita pepo | p. 69 |
Documenting a Developmental Dichotomy | p. 70 |
The Cophyletic Model: Recasting the Question of "Wild" versus "Escape" | p. 71 |
Recent Single Mesoamerican Origin Models | p. 74 |
Wilson's 1990 Explanation | p. 74 |
Kirkpatrick and Wilson's 1988 Explanations | p. 75 |
The Asches' 1991 Explanation | p. 77 |
The Geographical Range of Free-Living Gourds in Eastern North America | p. 80 |
The Niche and Habitat of Free-Living Cucurbita Gourds in Eastern North America | p. 88 |
Herbarium Sheet and Published Habitat Descriptions | p. 88 |
The Western Ozarks | p. 89 |
Bryant Creek and the Gasconade River | p. 89 |
The Buffalo River | p. 90 |
The White River | p. 94 |
Cucurbita Gourds as Agricultural Weeds | p. 95 |
The Niche and Habitat of Free-living Cucurbita Gourds | p. 95 |
Conclusions | p. 96 |
Acknowledgments | p. 98 |
Literature Cited | p. 98 |
Premaize Farming Economies in Eastern North America | |
The Role of Chenopodium as a Domesticate in Premaize Garden Systems of the Eastern United States | p. 103 |
Introduction | p. 103 |
The Continuum of Human-Plant Relationships | p. 104 |
Wild Status Plants | p. 105 |
Weedy Plants | p. 105 |
Cultivated Plants | p. 106 |
Domesticated Plants | p. 107 |
Placing the Plants of Premaize Garden Systems along the Wild to Domesticated Continuum | p. 107 |
Modern Weed Analogs | p. 107 |
Prehistoric Range Extension | p. 107 |
Archaeological Abundance Relative to Modern Occurrence | p. 107 |
"Plausibility Arguments" | p. 108 |
Morphological Change | p. 108 |
Premaize Plant Husbandry Systems | p. 108 |
Morphological Indicators of Domestication in Chenopodium | p. 110 |
Infructescence Compaction | p. 110 |
Loss of Natural Shatter Mechanisms | p. 111 |
Uniform Maturation of Fruit | p. 111 |
Increased Perisperm Food Reserves for Seed Germination and Seedling Growth | p. 111 |
Loss or Reduction in Thickness of Outer Epiderm | p. 114 |
Archaeological Indicators of Domestication in Chenopodium | p. 115 |
Building a Case for Domesticated Chenopodium in Premaize Plant Husbandry Systems | p. 116 |
The Russell Cave Chenopodium Assemblage | p. 117 |
Rediscovery: The Basket and its Temporal and Cultural Context | p. 118 |
Initial Processing and General Condition of the Fruits | p. 119 |
Unruptured Fruits | p. 120 |
Ruptured Fruits | p. 121 |
Scanning Electron Microscopy | p. 121 |
Fruit Size | p. 121 |
Pericarp Morphology | p. 122 |
Margin Configuration | p. 122 |
Outer Epiderm Thickness Measurements | p. 123 |
The Strength of the Case for Domestication | p. 123 |
Discussion | p. 125 |
Notes | p. 128 |
Acknowledgments | p. 129 |
Literature Cited | p. 129 |
Chenopodium berlandieri ssp. jonesianum: Evidence for a Hopewellian Domesticate from Ash Cave, Ohio | p. 133 |
Introduction | p. 133 |
The Andrews Excavation | p. 134 |
Subsequent Excavations by Wilson, Moorehead, and Goslin | p. 136 |
The Temporal Context of the Ash Cave Deposits | p. 138 |
The Cultural Context of the Ash Cave Chenopod Assemblage | p. 139 |
The Ash Cave Chenopodium Assemblage | p. 141 |
General Description | p. 141 |
Maximum Fruit Diameter | p. 142 |
Pericarp Morphology | p. 145 |
Testa or Outer Epiderm | p. 146 |
The Case for Domestication: Summary of a Comparative Morphological Analysis | p. 154 |
Taxonomic Considerations: C. berlandieri ssp. jonesianum | p. 155 |
Discussion: Hopewellian Plant Husbandry Systems | p. 156 |
Notes | p. 158 |
Acknowledgments | p. 158 |
Collections | p. 159 |
Literature Cited | p. 159 |
The Economic Potential of Chenopodium berlandieri in Prehistoric Eastern North America | p. 163 |
Introduction and Research Design | p. 163 |
Methods | p. 164 |
Results | p. 165 |
Wayne County, Michigan | p. 165 |
Fulton County, Pennsylvania | p. 168 |
Mississippi County, Arkansas | p. 168 |
Cherokee County, South Carolina | p. 169 |
Prince Georges County, Maryland | p. 169 |
Washington County, Maryland | p. 169 |
Pike County, Ohio | p. 169 |
Mississippi County, Missouri | p. 170 |
Hardin County, Tennessee | p. 172 |
Cullman County, Alabama | p. 172 |
Tuscaloosa County, Alabama | p. 173 |
Discussion | p. 173 |
The Habitat of C. berlandieri in the Eastern United States | p. 173 |
The Economic Potential of Chenopodium berlandieri | p. 175 |
Harvest Yield Comparisons | p. 176 |
Notes | p. 180 |
Acknowledgments | p. 181 |
Literature Cited | p. 181 |
The Economic Potential of Iva annua in Prehistoric Eastern North America | p. 185 |
Introduction | p. 185 |
Methods | p. 185 |
Results | p. 187 |
Marshall County, Kentucky | p. 187 |
Obion County, Tennessee | p. 188 |
Crittenden County, Arkansas | p. 188 |
Chicot County, Arkansas | p. 189 |
East Carroll Parish, Louisiana | p. 189 |
Hinds County, Mississippi | p. 189 |
Rankin County, Mississippi | p. 190 |
Crenshaw County, Alabama | p. 190 |
Mississippi County, Missouri | p. 190 |
Crittenden County, Arkansas | p. 190 |
Hardin County, Tennessee | p. 191 |
Acorn County, Mississippi | p. 191 |
Colbert County, Alabama | p. 191 |
Jefferson County, Alabama | p. 191 |
Tuscaloosa County, Alabama | p. 192 |
Discussion | p. 192 |
The Habitats of Iva annua in the Eastern Woodlands | p. 192 |
The Economic Potential of Iva annua | p. 195 |
Harvest Yield Comparisons | p. 197 |
Marshelder as a Premaize Field Crop: Half-Hectare Fields of Iva annua and Chenopodium berlandieri | p. 197 |
Notes | p. 200 |
Acknowledgments | p. 200 |
Literature Cited | p. 200 |
Hopewellian Farmers of Eastern North America | p. 201 |
Introduction | p. 201 |
The Nature and Development of Hopewellian Food Production Economies | p. 205 |
Hopewellian Farming Communities | p. 209 |
The Upper Duck River Valley of Central Tennessee | p. 215 |
Bynum Mounds | p. 225 |
Pinson Mounds | p. 225 |
The Lower Illinois River Valley | p. 229 |
The American Bottom | p. 236 |
Conclusions | p. 239 |
Acknowledgments | p. 243 |
Literature Cited | p. 243 |
In Search of Choupichoul, the Mystery Grain of the Natchez | p. 249 |
Introduction | p. 249 |
Le Page, the Natchez, and Choupichoul | p. 250 |
The Passages that Refer to Choupichoul | p. 252 |
In Search of Belle Dame Sauvage | p. 256 |
The Case for Chenopodium berlandieri | p. 257 |
Along the Sand Banks of the Mississippi River | p. 259 |
Chenopodium berlandieri in Prehistory | p. 261 |
Conclusion | p. 262 |
Acknowledgments | p. 262 |
Literature Cited | p. 262 |
Synthesis | |
Origins of Agriculture in Eastern North America | p. 267 |
Introduction | p. 267 |
An Independent Center of Plant Domestication | p. 268 |
The Emergence of Food Production Economies | p. 272 |
The Shift to Maize-Centered Agriculture | p. 274 |
Notes | p. 276 |
Literature Cited | p. 276 |
Prehistoric Plant Husbandry in Eastern North America | p. 281 |
Introduction | p. 281 |
Early and Middle Holocene Foragers prior to 7,000 B.P. (5050 B.C.) | p. 282 |
Middle Holocene Collectors 7,000 to 4,000 B.P. (5050 to 2050 B.C.) | p. 282 |
The Initial Domestication of Eastern Seed Plants 4,000 to 3,000 B.P. (1050 to 1050 B.C.) | p. 287 |
The Development of Farming Economies 3,000-1,700 B.P. (1050 B.C. to A.D. 250) | p. 288 |
The Expansion of Field Agriculture 1,700 to 800 B.P. (A.D. 250 to 1150) | p. 291 |
Maize-Centered Field Agriculture after 800 B.P. (A.D. 1150) | p. 292 |
Acknowledgments | p. 296 |
Literature Cited | p. 296 |
Index | p. 301 |
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