Rivers of Change

, by Smith, Bruce D.; Cowan, C. Wesley (CON); Hoffman, Michael P. (CON)

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ISBN: 9780817353483 | 0817353488
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 1/8/2006

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Organized into four sections, the twelve chapters of "Rivers of Change" are concerned with prehistoric Native American societies in eastern North America and their transition from a hunting and gathering way of life to a reliance on food production.

Preface

I. Rivers of Change

Introduction: Fields of Opportunity, Rivers of Change

(16)

The History of Maize in Eastern North America and the Existence of Premaize Farming Economies

(1)

Early Gourds in the East---Introduced Tropical Domesticate or Indigenous Wild Plants?

(1)

Plant Domestication in Eastern North America

(2)

Premaize Farming Economies in Eastern North America

(3)

Notes

(1)

Literature Cited

(3)

II. An Independent Center of Plant Domestication

The Floodplain Weed Theory of Plant Domestication in Eastern North America

(16)

Introduction

(2)

Edgar Anderson and the Plants of Open Habitats

(3)

Jack Harlan, J. M. J. de Wet, and the Adaptive Syndrome of Domestication

(2)

Technological Advance and Documenting Eastern Domesticates

(1)

The Initial Appearance of Anthropogenic Open Areas in Eastern North America

(1)

The Floodplain Niche of Indigenous Domesticates

(1)

Conclusions

(3)

Literature Cited

(3)

The Independent Domestication of Indigenous Seed-Bearing Plants in Eastern North America

(32)

Introduction: An Independent Origin

(1)

The 1920s: Linton and ``Various Small Grains in the Southeast''

(1)

The 1930s: Gilmore and Jones

(1)

The 1940s: Carter and Quimby

(1)

The 1950s: Anderson and Fowler

(1)

The 1960s: Yarnell and Struever

(1)

The 1970s: Discovery of Middle Holocene Cucurbits

(2)

Middle Holocene Cucurbits in the Eastern Woodlands

(1)

Cucurbita Terminology and Taxonomy

(1)

Cucurbita Rinds

(1)

Cucurbita Seeds

(4)

Geographical Range Arguments

(1)

Alternative Explanations

(3)

The Archaeobotanical Evidence for Initial Domestication of Seed-Bearing Plants

(1)

Iva annua

(1)

Helianthus annuus

(1)

Chenopodium berlandieri

(1)

The Fourth Millennium Transition

(1)

The Domestication of Indigenous Seed Crops

(1)

Early Holocene Foragers

(1)

The Hypsithermal

(1)

Sedentism and the Emergence of Domestilocalities

(1)

The ``Natural'' Floodplain Habitat Situations of Initial Indigenous Domesticates

(1)

Selective Pressures and the Coevolution of Domesticates within Domestilocalities

(3)

Discussion: A Coevolutionary Explanation

(1)

The Initial Establishment of Domestilocalities

(1)

Selective Encouragement

(1)

Deliberate Planting of Harvested Seeds

(2)

Notes

(2)

Acknowledgments

(1)

Literature Cited

(5)

Is It an Indigene or a Foreigner?

(36)

Bruce D. Smith

C. Wesley Cowan

Michael P. Hoffman

Introduction

(1)

Single Origin Explanations of the Late 1970s and 1980s

(1)

The Emergence of a Multiple Origins Explanation for the Domestication of Cucurbita pepo

(1)

Documenting a Developmental Dichotomy

(1)

The Cophyletic Model: Recasting the Question of ``Wild'' versus ``Escape''

(3)

Recent Single Mesoamerican Origin Models

(1)

Wilson's 1990 Explanation

(1)

Kirkpatrick and Wilson's 1988 Explanations

(2)

The Asches' 1991 Explanation

(3)

The Geographical Range of Free-Living Gourds in Eastern North America

(8)

The Niche and Habitat of Free-Living Cucurbita Gourds in Eastern North America

(1)

Herbarium Sheet and Published Habitat Descriptions

(1)

The Western Ozarks

(1)

Bryant Creek and the Gasconade River

(1)

The Buffalo River

(4)

The White River

(1)

Cucurbita Gourds as Agricultural Weeds

(1)

The Niche and Habitat of Free-living Cucurbita Gourds

(1)

Conclusions

(2)

Acknowledgments

(1)

Literature Cited

(5)

III. Premaize Farming Economies in Eastern North America

The Role of Chenopodium as a Domesticate in Premaize Garden Systems of the Eastern United States

103

(30)

Introduction

103

(1)

The Continuum of Human-Plant Relationships

104

(1)

Wild Status Plants

105

(1)

Weedy Plants

105

(1)

Cultivated Plants

106

(1)

Domesticated Plants

107

(1)

Placing the Plants of Premaize Garden Systems along the Wild to Domesticated Continuum

107

(1)

Modern Weed Analogs

107

(1)

Prehistoric Range Extension

107

(1)

Archaeological Abundance Relative to Modern Occurrence

107

(1)

``Plausibility Arguments''

108

(1)

Morphological Change

108

(1)

Premaize Plant Husbandry Systems

108

(2)

Morphological Indicators of Domestication in Chenopodium

110

(1)

Infructescence Compaction

110

(1)

Loss of Natural Shatter Mechanisms

111

(1)

Uniform Maturation of Fruit

111

(1)

Increased Perisperm Food Reserves for Seed Germination and Seedling Growth

111

(3)

Loss or Reduction in Thickness of Outer Epiderm

114

(1)

Archaeological Indicators of Domestication in Chenopodium

115

(1)

Building a Case for Domesticated Chenopodium in Premaize Plant Husbandry Systems

116

(1)

The Russell Cave Chenopodium Assemblage

117

(1)

Rediscovery: The Basket and its Temporal and Cultural Context

118

(1)

Initial Processing and General Condition of the Fruits

119

(1)

Unruptured Fruits

120

(1)

Ruptured Fruits

121

(1)

Scanning Electron Microscopy

121

(1)

Fruit Size

121

(1)

Pericarp Morphology

122

(1)

Margin Configuration

122

(1)

Outer Epiderm Thickness Measurements

123

(1)

The Strength of the Case for Domestication

123

(2)

Discussion

125

(3)

Notes

128

(1)

Acknowledgments

129

(1)

Literature Cited

129

(4)

Chenopodium berlandieri ssp. jonesianum: Evidence for a Hopewellian Domesticate from Ash Cave, Ohio

133

(30)

Introduction

133

(1)

The Andrews Excavation

134

(2)

Subsequent Excavations by Wilson, Moorehead, and Goslin

136

(2)

The Temporal Context of the Ash Cave Deposits

138

(1)

The Cultural Context of the Ash Cave Chenopod Assemblage

139

(2)

The Ash Cave Chenopodium Assemblage

141

(1)

General Description

141

(1)

Maximum Fruit Diameter

142

(3)

Pericarp Morphology

145

(1)

Testa or Outer Epiderm

146

(8)

The Case for Domestication: Summary of a Comparative Morphological Analysis

154

(1)

Taxonomic Considerations: C. berlandieri ssp. jonesianum

155

(1)

Discussion: Hopewellian Plant Husbandry Systems

156

(2)

Notes

158

(1)

Acknowledgments

158

(1)

Collections

159

(1)

Literature Cited

159

(4)

The Economic Potential of Chenopodium berlandieri in Prehistoric Eastern North America

163

(22)

Introduction and Research Design

163

(1)

Methods

164

(1)

Results

165

(1)

Wayne County, Michigan

165

(3)

Fulton County, Pennsylvania

168

(1)

Mississippi County, Arkansas

168

(1)

Cherokee County, South Carolina

169

(1)

Prince Georges County, Maryland

169

(1)

Washington County, Maryland

169

(1)

Pike County, Ohio

169

(1)

Mississippi County, Missouri

170

(2)

Hardin County, Tennessee

172

(1)

Cullman County, Alabama

172

(1)

Tuscaloosa County, Alabama

173

(1)

Discussion

173

(1)

The Habitat of C. berlandieri in the Eastern United States

173

(2)

The Economic Potential of Chenopodium berlandieri

175

(1)

Harvest Yield Comparisons

176

(9)

Notes

180

(1)

Acknowledgments

181

(1)

Literature Cited

181

(4)

The Economic Potential of Iva annua in Prehistoric Eastern North America

185

(16)

Introduction

185

(1)

Methods

185

(2)

Results

187

(1)

Marshall County, Kentucky

187

(1)

Obion County, Tennessee

188

(1)

Crittenden County, Arkansas

188

(1)

Chicot County, Arkansas

189

(1)

East Carroll Parish, Louisiana

189

(1)

Hinds County, Mississippi

189

(1)

Rankin County, Mississippi

190

(1)

Crenshaw County, Alabama

190

(1)

Mississippi County, Missouri

190

(1)

Crittenden County, Arkansas

190

(1)

Hardin County, Tennessee

191

(1)

Acorn County, Mississippi

191

(1)

Colbert County, Alabama

191

(1)

Jefferson County, Alabama

191

(1)

Tuscaloosa County, Alabama

192

(1)

Discussion

192

(1)

The Habitats of Iva annua in the Eastern Woodlands

192

(3)

The Economic Potential of Iva annua

195

(2)

Harvest Yield Comparisons

197

(1)

Marshelder as a Premaize Field Crop: Half-Hectare Fields of Iva annua and Chenopodium berlandieri

197

(4)

Notes

200

(1)

Acknowledgments

200

(1)

Literature Cited

200

(1)

Hopewellian Farmers of Eastern North America

201

(48)

Introduction

201

(4)

The Nature and Development of Hopewellian Food Production Economies

205

(4)

Hopewellian Farming Communities

209

(6)

The Upper Duck River Valley of Central Tennessee

215

(10)

Bynum Mounds

225

(1)

Pinson Mounds

225

(4)

The Lower Illinois River Valley

229

(7)

The American Bottom

236

(13)

Conclusions

239

(4)

Acknowledgments

243

(1)

Literature Cited

243

(6)

In Search of Choupichoul, the Mystery Grain of the Natchez

249

(18)

Introduction

249

(1)

Le Page, the Natchez, and Choupichoul

250

(2)

The Passages that Refer to Choupichoul

252

(4)

In Search of Belle Dame Sauvage

256

(1)

The Case for Chenopodium berlandieri

257

(2)

Along the Sand Banks of the Mississippi River

259

(2)

Chenopodium berlandieri in Prehistory

261

(1)

Conclusion

262

(1)

Acknowledgments

262

(1)

Literature Cited

262

(5)

IV. Synthesis

Origins of Agriculture in Eastern North America

267

(14)

Introduction

267

(1)

An Independent Center of Plant Domestication

268

(4)

The Emergence of Food Production Economies

272

(2)

The Shift to Maize-Centered Agriculture

274

(2)

Notes

276

(1)

Literature Cited

276

(5)

Prehistoric Plant Husbandry in Eastern North America

281

(20)

Introduction

281

(1)

Early and Middle Holocene Foragers prior to 7,000 B.P. (5050 B.C.)

282

(1)

Middle Holocene Collectors 7,000 to 4,000 B.P. (5050 to 2050 B.C.)

282

(5)

The Initial Domestication of Eastern Seed Plants 4,000 to 3,000 B.P. (2050 to 1050 B.C.)

287

(1)

The Development of Farming Economies 3,000--1,700 B.P. (1050 B.C. to A.D. 250)

288

(3)

The Expansion of Field Agriculture 1,700 to 800 B.P. (A.D. 250 to 1150)

291

(1)

Maize-Centered Field Agriculture after 800 B.P. (A.D. 1150)

292

(4)

Acknowledgments

296

(1)

Literature Cited

296

(5)

Index

301

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Rivers of Change

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials