The Science of Sound

, by Rossing, Thomas D.; Moore, Richard F.

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ISBN: 9780805385656 | 0805385657
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/18/2001

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The Science of Soundis widely recognized as the leading textbook in the field. It provides an excellent introduction to acoustics for readers without college physics or a strong background in mathematics. In the Third Edition, Richard Moore and Paul Wheeler join Tom Rossing in updatingThe Science of Soundto include a wide range of important technological developments in the field of acoustics. New exercises and review questions have been added to the end of each chapter to help readers study the material.For college instructors and students.

Preface to the Third Edition

I VIBRATIONS, WAVES, AND SOUND

(76)

What Is Sound?

(19)

What Is a Sound Wave?

(1)

Sources of Sound

(1)

Wanted and Unwanted Sound

(1)

Distance, Speed, and Velocity

(2)

Graphical Representation of Motion

(2)

Force and Acceleration

(2)

Pressure

(2)

Graphical Representation of a Sound Wave

(1)

Work and Energy

(1)

Power

(1)

Units

(1)

Summary

(4)

Vibrating Systems

(17)

Simple Harmonic Motion

(2)

Energy and Damping

(1)

Simple Vibrating Systems

(2)

Systems with Two or Three Masses

(3)

Systems with Many Modes of Vibration

(1)

Vibrations in Musical Instruments

(3)

Complex Vibrations: Vibration Spectra

(1)

Summary

(4)

Waves

(21)

What Is a Wave?

(1)

Progressive Waves

(2)

Impulsive Waves; Reflection

(2)

Superposition and Interference

(2)

Sound Waves

(2)

Wave Propagation in Two and Three Dimensions

(1)

The Doppler Effect

(2)

Reflection

(1)

Refraction

(1)

Diffraction

(1)

Interference

(2)

Summary

(5)

Resonance

(17)

Resonance of a Mass-Spring Vibrator

(1)

Phase of Driven Vibrations

(1)

Standing Waves on a String

(2)

Partials, Harmonics, and Overtones

(1)

Open and Closed Pipes

(2)

Acoustic Impedance

(1)

Helmholtz Resonator

(1)

Singing Rods

(1)

More Examples of Resonance: Can a Singer Break a Wineglass?

(1)

Sympathetic Vibrations: Soundboards

(1)

Summary

(6)

II PERCEPTION AND MEASUREMENT OF SOUND

(114)

Hearing

(20)

Range of Hearing

(2)

Structure of the Ear

(5)

Signal Processing in the Auditory System

(2)

Critical Bands

(1)

Binaural Hearing and Localization

(1)

Measuring Sensations: Psychophysics

(1)

Logarithms in Sound and Music

(3)

Subjective Attributes of Sound

(1)

Summary

(4)

Sound Pressure, Power, and Loudness

(22)

Decibels

(1)

Sound Intensity Level

100

(3)

Sound Pressure Level

103

(2)

Multiple Sources

105

(1)

Loudness Level

106

(2)

Loudness of Pure Tones: Sones

108

(1)

Loudness of Complex Tones: Critical Bands

109

(1)

Loudness of Combined Sounds

110

(2)

Musical Dynamics and Loudness

112

(1)

Masking

113

(2)

Loudness Reduction by Masking

115

(1)

Loudness and Duration: Impulsive Sounds and Adaptation

115

(1)

Summary

116

(5)

Pitch and Timbre

121

(29)

Pitch Scales

121

(2)

Pitch Discrimination

123

(1)

Pitch of Pure Tones

123

(3)

Pitch of Complex Tones: Virtual Pitch

126

(1)

Seebeck's Siren and Ohm's Law: A Historical Note

127

(1)

Theories of Pitch: Place Pitch versus Periodicity Pitch

128

(5)

Absolute Pitch

133

(1)

Pitch Standards

134

(1)

Timbre or Tone Quality

135

(1)

Fourier Analysis of Complex Tones

136

(4)

Timbre and Dynamic Effects: Envelope and Duration

140

(1)

Vibrato

141

(1)

Blend of Complex Tones

142

(2)

Summary

144

(6)

Combination Tones and Harmony

150

(24)

Linear Superposition

150

(1)

Phase Angle

151

(2)

Combination of Two Simple Harmonic Motions

153

(1)

Pure Tones with Slightly Different Frequencies: Beats

154

(2)

The Musical Staff: Musicians' Graph Paper

156

(1)

Combination Tones

157

(2)

Modulation of One Tone by Another

159

(1)

Other Nonlinear Effects: Aural Harmonics and Summation Tones

160

(1)

Origin of Difference Tones

160

(1)

Consonance and Dissonance: Musical Intervals

161

(4)

Effect of Phase on Timbre

165

(2)

Beats of Mistuned Consonances

167

(1)

The Central Nervous System: Autocorrelation and Cross-Correlation

168

(1)

Cerebral Dominance

169

(1)

Summary

169

(5)

Musical Scales and Temperament

174

(17)

Scale, Tuning, Temperament, and Intonation

175

(1)

The Pythagorean Scale

176

(2)

Meantone Temperament

178

(1)

The Scale of Just Intonation

178

(3)

Equal Temperament

181

(4)

Comparison of Scales

185

(1)

Other Meantone Temperaments

186

(1)

Intonation

187

(1)

Summary

187

(4)

III MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

191

(144)

String Instruments

193

(32)

Construction of the Violin

194

(1)

Vibrations of a Plucked String

195

(2)

Vibrations of a Bowed String

197

(5)

Vibrations of the Violin Body

202

(1)

Tuning the Top and Back Plates

202

(4)

The Bridge

206

(1)

Other Bowed String Instruments

206

(1)

Music and Physics: A New Family of Fiddles

207

(1)

Construction of the Guitar

208

(2)

The Guitar as a Vibrating System

210

(1)

Vibrations of the Top Plate, Back Plate, and Air Cavity

211

(1)

Resonances of the Guitar Body

212

(2)

Sound Radiation

214

(2)

The Guitar: A Developing Instrument

216

(1)

The Electric Guitar

217

(2)

Strings, Frets, and Compensation

219

(1)

Summary

220

(5)

Brass Instruments

225

(21)

Instruments of the Brass Family

225

(2)

Oscillations in a Pipe

227

(1)

Pressure-Controlled Valves

228

(2)

The Bell and Mouthpiece

230

(3)

Valves and Slides: Filling in Between the Modes

233

(2)

The French Horn

235

(1)

The Trombone

236

(1)

Tuba, Baritone, and Fluegelhorn

236

(1)

The Spectra of Brass Instruments

236

(2)

Shock Waves

238

(1)

Transients

238

(1)

Mutes

238

(1)

Wall Material

239

(1)

Performance Technique

240

(1)

Summary

241

(5)

Woodwind Instruments

246

(26)

How a Pipe-Reed System Vibrates

247

(3)

Tone Holes

250

(2)

Bore Types

252

(1)

The Clarinet

252

(3)

Registers and Register Holes

255

(2)

Radiated Sound

257

(1)

The Double Reeds

258

(2)

The Saxophone

260

(1)

Efficiency and Performance Technique

261

(1)

Oscillating Air Streams and Whistles

262

(2)

The Flute

264

(1)

Other Flutes

265

(1)

The Recorder

266

(1)

Organ Pipes

267

(1)

Summary

267

(5)

Percussion Instruments

272

(38)

Vibrations of Bars

273

(2)

Rectangular Bars: The Glockenspiel

275

(1)

The Marimba, Xylophone, and Vibes

276

(3)

Mallets

279

(1)

Chimes

280

(2)

Triangles

282

(1)

Vibrations of Membranes

283

(1)

Timpani

284

(3)

Bass Drum

287

(1)

Snare Drum

288

(2)

Other Drums

290

(2)

Vibrations of Plates

292

(1)

Cymbals

293

(4)

Gongs and Tamtams

297

(1)

Steelpans

297

(3)

Sound Spectra

300

(2)

Bells and Carillons

302

(2)

Handbells

304

(1)

Summary

305

(5)

Keyboard Instruments

310

(25)

Construction of the Piano

310

(3)

Piano Strings

313

(2)

The Tuning of Unisons

315

(1)

Hammer-String Interaction

315

(1)

The Soundboard

316

(1)

Piano Sound

317

(1)

The Clavichord

317

(2)

The Harpsichord

319

(1)

The Harp

320

(2)

The Pipe Organ: Its Construction

322

(1)

Organ Pipes

323

(3)

Pipe Scaling

326

(1)

Sound Radiation From Flue Pipes

327

(1)

Reed Pipes

328

(1)

Tuning and Voicing Organ Pipes

328

(2)

Summary

330

(5)

IV THE HUMAN VOICE

335

(63)

Speech Production

337

(19)

The Vocal Organs

337

(1)

The Larynx and the Vocal Folds

338

(3)

The Vocal Tract

341

(2)

Articulation of Speech

343

(2)

Resonances of the Vocal Tract: Formants

345

(2)

Models of the Vocal Tract

347

(3)

Studies of the Vocal Tract

350

(1)

Prosodic Features of Speech

351

(1)

Summary

351

(5)

Speech Recognition, Analysis, and Synthesis

356

(17)

The Analysis of Speech

356

(1)

The Recognition of Vowels

357

(2)

The Recognition of Consonants

359

(4)

Filtered Speech and Noisy Environments

363

(2)

The Synthesis of Speech

365

(1)

Speech Coding and Compression

366

(1)

Speech Recognition by Computers

367

(1)

Speaker Identification by Speech Spectrograms: Voiceprints

368

(1)

Summary

369

(4)

Singing

373

(25)

Formants and Pitch

373

(1)

Differences Between Spoken and Sung Vowels

374

(4)

Formant Tuning by Sopranos

378

(2)

Breathing and Air Flow

380

(2)

Subglottal Pressures in Singing

382

(2)

Registers, Voices, and Muscles

384

(4)

Other Factors Influencing the Spectra of Sung Notes

388

(2)

Choir Singing

390

(1)

Popular Singing and Other Styles

391

(2)

Summary

393

(5)

V ELECTROACOUSTICS

398

(125)

Electronic Circuits

399

(24)

Direct Current

399

(4)

Electrical Energy and Power

403

(1)

Alternating Current

404

(2)

Transformers

406

(1)

Electrical Resonance

407

(2)

Filters

409

(3)

Active Devices

412

(2)

Amplifiers

414

(2)

Operational Amplifiers

416

(1)

Oscillators and Function Generators

416

(1)

Power Supplies

417

(1)

Summary

418

(5)

Loudspeakers

423

(26)

Loudspeakers as Transducers

424

(1)

Structure of Dynamic Loudspeakers

424

(2)

Electromagnetic Drivers

426

(3)

Mechanical and Electrical Characteristics

429

(1)

Baffles and Enclosures

430

(1)

Air Suspension Low-Frequency Loudspeakers

431

(1)

Equivalent Electrical Circuit for a Loudspeaker

432

(1)

Vented Boxes: Bass-Reflex Enclosures

433

(4)

Horn Loudspeakers

437

(1)

Multispeaker Systems

438

(2)

Other Loudspeaker Types

440

(1)

Recent Trends in Loudspeakers

441

(1)

Loudspeaker Efficiency

441

(1)

Loudspeaker Distortion

442

(1)

Earphones (Headphones)

443

(1)

Summary

444

(5)

Microphones, Amplifiers, and Tuners

449

(21)

Microphones as Transducers

449

(4)

Microphone Pickup Patterns

453

(2)

Microphone Impedance

455

(1)

Microphone Sensitivity

455

(1)

Amplifiers

456

(2)

Distortion

458

(1)

Amplifier Power and Distortion

459

(2)

AM/FM Tuners

461

(2)

Stereo Broadcasting

463

(1)

AV Receivers: Surround Sound

463

(3)

Summary

466

(4)

Digital Computers and Techniques

470

(26)

What Is a Computer?

470

(1)

Binary Data

470

(2)

Number Representations

472

(2)

Organization of a Computer

474

(1)

The CPU

475

(1)

Memory

476

(1)

Input and Output (I/O)

477

(1)

Computer Buses

478

(1)

Computer Programming

479

(1)

Digital Signals

480

(1)

Pulse-Code Modulation

481

(1)

The Sampling Theorem

482

(1)

Quantization

483

(1)

Quantization Error

483

(1)

Aliasing

484

(3)

Phase Distortion

487

(1)

Oversampling

487

(1)

Dithering

488

(1)

Companding

489

(2)

Summary

491

(5)

Sound Recording

496

(27)

The Origins of Sound Recording

496

(1)

Stereophonic Disk Recording

497

(1)

Magnetic Tape Recording

498

(2)

Tape Speed and Frequency Response

500

(2)

Bias and Equalization

502

(1)

Tape Noise

503

(1)

Digital Tape Recording

504

(2)

Digital Audiotape Recorders for Home Use

506

(1)

Digital Multitrack Recording

507

(1)

Hard-Disk Recording

508

(1)

Compact Disc Digital Audio

509

(4)

Recordable CDS

513

(1)

MiniDiscs

514

(2)

DVD

516

(1)

DVD-Audio

517

(1)

Solid-State Memory Recording

517

(1)

Summary

518

(5)

VI THE ACOUSTICS OF ROOMS

523

(68)

Auditorium Acoustics

525

(21)

Sound Propagation Outdoors and Indoors

525

(1)

Direct, Early, and Reverberant Sound

526

(2)

Direct and Early Sound: The Precedence Effect

528

(1)

Reverberant Sound

529

(2)

Calculation of the Reverberation Time

531

(1)

Air Absorption

532

(2)

Criteria for Good Acoustics

534

(1)

Concert Halls

535

(3)

Background Noise

538

(1)

Avery Fisher Hall: A Case Study

539

(1)

Variable Acoustics

540

(1)

Churches

541

(1)

Classrooms

541

(1)

Summary

542

(4)

Electronic Reinforcement of Sound

546

(19)

Sound Sources in a Room

546

(1)

Sound Fields

547

(2)

Power Considerations

549

(2)

Loudspeaker Placement

551

(1)

Loudspeaker Directivity

551

(3)

Acoustic Feedback

554

(1)

Equalization

555

(2)

Time Delay

557

(1)

Enhancement of Reverberation

557

(2)

Microphone Placement and Mixing

559

(1)

Reinforcement for the Hearing Impaired

560

(1)

Outdoor Sound Systems

560

(1)

Summary

561

(4)

Small Rooms, Home Listening Rooms, and Recording Studios

565

(26)

Acoustics of Small Rooms

565

(3)

Room Proportions

568

(1)

Sound Images From Multiple Sources

569

(4)

What Is High-Fidelity Sound?

573

(2)

Single- and Multichannel Sound-Reproducing Systems

575

(1)

Stereophonic Sound

576

(2)

The Sound Field in Listening Rooms

578

(1)

Sound Diffusors

579

(2)

Sound Absorption

581

(1)

Home Theaters

582

(1)

Sound-Recording Studios

583

(2)

Control Rooms

585

(1)

Summary

586

(5)

VII ELECTRONIC MUSIC TECHNOLOGY

591

(110)

Electronic Music Technology and its Origins

593

(18)

Contemporary Music Technology

594

(1)

Ancient Precursors

595

(1)

Early Sound Recording

596

(1)

Understanding Electricity

597

(1)

The Age of Electronics

598

(1)

Early Electronic Music

598

(2)

Electrical Organs

600

(3)

Modern Electronics

603

(3)

Music Technology Today

606

(1)

Summary

607

(4)

Analog Electronic Music

611

(23)

The Elements of Electronic Music

611

(2)

Musique Concrete: The Conceptual Basis

613

(1)

Musique Concrete: The Technological Basis

614

(1)

Elektronische Musik: The Conceptual Basis

615

(1)

Elektronische Musik: The Technological Basis

616

(1)

Tape Music

617

(1)

Early Electronic Music Synthesizers

617

(1)

The Mark II Electronic Music Synthesizer

618

(1)

Voltage Control

619

(1)

Modules and Patches

620

(5)

Control Voltage Characteristics

625

(1)

Other Modules

626

(2)

Other Controllers

628

(1)

Digital Control and the Groove System

628

(3)

Summary

631

(3)

Digital Audio Signal Processing

634

(20)

Digital Audio-Signal Processing

634

(1)

Digital Signal Processing and Mathematics

634

(1)

The Time Domain

635

(1)

The Frequency Domain

636

(3)

The Discrete Fourier Transform

639

(2)

The Fast Fourier Transform

641

(1)

Convolution

641

(2)

Digital Filtering

643

(1)

The z-Transform

644

(2)

Filter Coefficients

646

(1)

The Transfer Function

647

(1)

Poles and Zeros

647

(1)

FIR and IIR Filters

648

(1)

Processing Audio Signals

649

(2)

Summary

651

(3)

Computer Music and Virtual Acoustics

654

(47)

Computer Music

654

(5)

Sound Synthesis Methods

659

(1)

Additive Synthesis

659

(3)

Subtractive Synthesis

662

(2)

Nonlinear Synthesis

664

(6)

Physical Modeling Synthesis

670

(4)

Digital Music Synthesizers

674

(3)

Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)

677

(2)

Samplers

679

(5)

Real-Time Software Synthesis

684

(1)

Spatialization

685

(6)

Digital Audio Compression

691

(4)

Digital Audio and the Internet

695

(1)

Summary

696

(5)

VIII ENVIRONMENTAL NOISE

701

(50)

Noise in the Environment

703

(14)

Sound Power and Mechanical Power

703

(1)

Noise Levels

704

(1)

Sound Propagation Outdoors

705

(3)

Flow Noise

708

(1)

Machinery Noise

709

(1)

Indoor Noise

710

(1)

Motor Vehicles

711

(2)

Railroads and Aircraft

713

(1)

Summary

714

(3)

The Effects of Noise on People

717

(14)

Temporary Hearing Loss

717

(3)

Permanent Hearing Loss

720

(1)

Ear Damage

721

(1)

Hearing Protectors

722

(1)

Speech Interference

723

(2)

Interference with Sleep

725

(1)

Other Psychological Effects

726

(1)

The Physiological Effects of Noise

727

(1)

Summary

727

(4)

The Control of Noise

731

(20)

Analyzing a Noise Problem: Source-Path-Receiver

731

(1)

Noise Regulations

732

(1)

Exposure to Occupational Noise

733

(1)

Product Labeling

734

(1)

Walls and Floors

734

(3)

Barriers---Indoors and Outdoors

737

(2)

Enclosures

739

(1)

Sound Absorbers

740

(2)

Heating and Air Conditioning Noise

742

(1)

Aircraft Noise

742

(3)

Supersonic Aircraft

745

(1)

Ultrasound and Infrasound

746

(1)

Active Noise Control

746

(1)

Summary

747

(4)

Appendix A

751

(21)

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

772

(3)

Index

775

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The Science of Sound

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials