An Ecological Approach to International Law:

This book asks the question, "Why has international law failed to respond to global climate change?" and in so doing, offers the first major critique of international law based on environmental ethics. By examining particular international legal responses to global climate change, it shows that current international environmental law is fundamentally flawed and not equipped to meet global challenges.

Acknowledgements

xi

(2)

List of abbreviations

xiii

1 Introduction

1

(8)

2 The scientific and ethical dimensions of the greenhouse effect

9

(52)

2.1 Introduction

9

(1)

2.2 The greenhouse effect, its causes and consequences

10

(9)

2.2.1 Causes

11

(3)

2.2.2 Impacts

14

(5)

2.3 Scientific uncertainties

19

(2)

2.4 Future trends and projections

21

(1)

2.5 Responses

21

(1)

2.6 Problems and conflicts

22

(2)

2.7 Responding to scientific uncertainty

24

(2)

2.8 The ethical dimensions of the greenhouse effect

26

(35)

3 State responsibility for environmental harm

61

(83)

3.1 Introduction

61

(4)

3.2 The obligation to prevent environmental harm

65

(13)

3.3 Scope of the obligation to prevent environmental harm

78

(9)

3.3.1 Obligation to prevent harm

78

(1)

3.3.2 Locus of activities

78

(2)

3.3.3 Locus of harm

80

(6)

3.3.4 Degree of harm

86

(1)

3.4 State responsibility for environmental harm: a hypothetical case

87

(22)

3.4.1 An International obligation: a rule of customary international law?

88

(1)

3.4.2 The legal basis of responsibility?

89

(2)

3.4.3 Attribution

91

(1)

3.4.4 Locus standi

92

(10)

3.4.5 The wrongdoer

102

(1)

3.4.6 Causation

103

(2)

3.4.7 Remedies

105

(3)

3.4.8 Conclusion

108

(1)

3.5 An appropriate legal response?

109

(14)

3.5.1 State sovereignty and the transboundary approach

110

(8)

3.5.2 Protection of property rights

118

(4)

3.5.3 Reciprocity and co-existence vs co-operation

122

(1)

3.5.4 Permissible levels of harm

122

(1)

3.6 Conclusion

123

(21)

4 International liability for injurious consequences arising out of acts not prohibited by international law

144

(52)

4.1 Introduction

144

(2)

4.2 Doctrine

146

(7)

4.2.1 Scope of the topic

146

(1)

4.2.2 Concepts and principles

147

(1)

4.2.3 Relationship with state responsibility

148

(3)

4.2.4 Basis of liability

151

(1)

4.2.5 Doctrinal debate

152

(1)

4.3 Greenhouse effect -- within the topic's scope?

153

(12)

4.3.1 Pre 1988

154

(5)

4.3.2 Post 1988

159

(6)

4.4 An appropriate legal response?

165

(17)

4.4.1 The transboundary approach and the `global commons'

165

(4)

4.4.2 Protection of property rights

169

(2)

4.4.3 A piecemeal approach

171

(6)

4.4.4 Liability regime

177

(3)

4.4.5 Environmental harm per se

180

(1)

4.4.6 Co-operation

181

(1)

4.4.7 Cost allocation

181

(1)

4.5 Conclusion

182

(14)

5 Human rights and the environment

196

(62)

5.1 Introduction

196

(1)

5.2 The existence of a human right under current international law

197

(12)

5.2.1 A right derived from existing rights?

197

(3)

5.2.2 An independent norm under customary international law?

200

(9)

5.3 Progressive development toward an environmental human right

209

(3)

5.4 A new international human right?

212

(10)

5.4.1 The case for a new human right

212

(8)

5.4.2 Development of existing human rights?

220

(1)

5.4.3 `Environmental rights'

221

(1)

5.5 Specific issues of content

222

(9)

5.5.1 Definition

222

(2)

5.5.2 Enforcement -- whose right?

224

(6)

5.5.3 Obligations

230

(1)

5.6 An appropriate legal response?

231

(14)

5.6.1 Anthropocentrism

232

(5)

5.6.2 Balancing competing rights

237

(1)

5.6.3 Developing states

238

(2)

5.6.4 Sovereignty

240

(2)

5.6.5 Future generations

242

(1)

5.6.6 International standards and co-operation

243

(1)

5.6.7 Prevention

244

(1)

5.7 Conclusion

244

(14)

6 The common heritage of mankind

258

(65)

6.1 Introduction

258

(2)

6.2 The meaning of common heritage of mankind

260

(25)

6.2.1 Terminology

260

(2)

6.2.2 Writings of Avrid Pardo and the 1970 Sea-Bed Declaration

262

(7)

6.2.3 Legal theory

269

(8)

6.2.4 Common interest

277

(3)

6.2.5 Intergenerational equity and trust

280

(5)

6.3 Specific environmental obligations

285

(4)

6.3.1 1970 Sea-Bed Declaration

286

(1)

6.3.2 LOS Convention

287

(1)

6.3.3 Moon Treaty

288

(1)

6.4 Current trends

289

(2)

6.5 An appropriate legal response?

291

(6)

6.5.1 Environmental ethics

292

(1)

6.5.2 Resource exploitation

292

(1)

6.5.3 Breach of obligations?

293

(1)

6.5.4 Common interest

293

(2)

6.5.5 Sovereignty

295

(2)

6.5.6 Flexibility of meaning

297

(1)

6.6 A new principle of international law: the `common heritage of life'

297

(8)

6.6.1 The ethical issue

299

(5)

6.6.2 Protection of the global environment

304

(1)

6.7 Implementation of Common Heritage of Life: a global environmental treaty

305

(4)

6.8 Conclusion

309

(14)

7 Rio: an opportunity lost?

323

(26)

7.1 Introduction

323

(1)

7.2 The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

323

(18)

7.3 Conclusion

341

(8)

8 Conclusion

349

(4)

Appendices

353

(54)

Bibliography

407

(24)

Index

431

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An Ecological Approach to International Law: Responding to the Challenges of Climate Change

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Table of Contents

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