Advances in Vagal Afferent Neurobiology

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ISBN: 9780849321313 | 084932131X
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 6/1/2005

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Vagus is a Latin word that shares its root with the word vague. This is appropriate, as much of what we know about vagal sensory neuroscience remains vague and imprecise. The number of scientific studies aimed directly at investigating afferent nerves within the vagi pale in comparison with those involved within the spinal afferent system. In addition, because the vagus meanders through the viscera, providing regulatory influences over the thoracic and abdominal organs, experts in vagal neurobiology are typically organo-centric and spread across many disciplines.Advances in Vagal Afferent Neurobiology brings together more than thirty of the world's leading neuroscientists to present a coherent summary of vagal afferent neuroscience obtained within the body's organ systems. By juxtaposing the contributions of many disciplines in a single volume, this work encourages a cross-fertilization of ideas that provides new insights and increased focus on this important topic. The book contains chapters that deal with vagal nerves in the central nervous system, lungs, esophagus, heart, and gastrointestinal tract. It also covers critical aspects ranging from vagus nerves in the embryo to vagus nerves in the adult, and considers activity in individual neurons to whole animal studies of the reflexes and sensations such activity engenders.Each chapter provides an overview of a particular area of vagal afferent neuroscience, and, in many cases, offers details pertaining to specific experiments and techniques. By painting vagal afferent biology with the broadest brush possible, this text offers a unique and useful resource for the student, as well as for the established neuroscientist interested in the visceral nervous system.

PART I Development and Plasticity

Chapter 1 The Embryology of Vagal Sensory Neurons

(24)

Clare V.H. Baker

1.1 Introduction

(4)

1.1.1 The Spatial Segregation of Functionally Distinct Cranial Sensory Neurons Reflects Their Different Embryonic Origins

(3)

1.1.2 Cranial Ectodermal Placodes: An Introduction

(1)

1.1.3 The Neural Crest: An Introduction

(1)

1.1.4 Placode and Neural Crest Formation at the Neural Plate Border

(1)

1.2 Nodose Neurons: Placode Development and Neurogenesis

(8)

1.2.1 Evidence for a Pan-Placodal Primordium at the Neural Plate Border

(1)

1.2.2 Formation of Individual Placodes: Involvement of the Pax/Six/Eya/Dach Regulatory Network?

(1)

1.2.3 Many Individual Placodes, Including the Nodose Placode, Originate from Distinct Multi-Placodal Primordia

(1)

1.2.4 Induction of the Epibranchial Placodes (Geniculate, Petrosal, and Nodose)

(1)

1.2.5 Neurogenesis within the Epibranchial Placodes

(1)

1.2.5.1 Proneural Genes and Notch Signaling in Neurogenesis: A Brief Outline

(1)

1.2.5.2 Neurogenins Are Required for Neurogenesis in the Epibranchial Placodes

(1)

1.2.5.3 Phox2a and Phox2b Confer Neuronal Subtype Identity and Are Required for Neuronal Survival

(1)

1.2.6 Neural Crest Cells Are Required for the Formation of Central Connections by Epibranchial Neurons

(1)

1.2.7 Summary of Nodose Neuron Development

(1)

1.3 Jugular Neurons: Neural Crest Development and Sensory Neurogenesis

(6)

1.3.1 Induction of the Neural Crest

(1)

1.3.2 Neural Crest Lineage Diversification: General Principles

(2)

1.3.3 Sensory Neurogenesis within the Neural Crest

(1)

1.3.3.1 Wnt Signaling Instructively Promotes Adoption of a Sensory Neuron Fate

(1)

1.3.3.2 Sensory-Fated and Sensory-Committed Precursors Are Present in the Migrating Neural Crest Population

(1)

1.3.3.3 Neurogenin2 Biases Trunk Neural Crest Cells to a Sensory Fate

(1)

1.3.3.4 Neurogenin1 Is Required for the Formation of Jugular Neurons

(1)

1.3.3.5 Inhibition of Notch Signaling Is Required for Sensory Neuron Differentiation

(1)

1.3.4 Summary of Jugular Neuron Development

(1)

References

(5)

Chapter 2 Vagal Afferent Neurons: Neurotrophic Factors and Epigenetic Influences

(50)

Cinda J. Helke

2.1 Introduction

(1)

2.2 Epigenetic Influences on Development/Survival of Vagal Afferent Neurons

(11)

2.2.1 Neurotrophins in Development

(1)

2.2.1.1 NGF and TrkA

(1)

2.2.1.2 BDNF, NT-4, and TrkB

(1)

2.2.1.3 NT-3 and TrkC

(2)

2.2.2 Other Neurotrophic Factors/Receptors in Developing Ganglia

(1)

2.2.2.1 Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (GDNF) Family

(1)

2.2.2.2 Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor (CNTF) Family

(1)

2.2.3 Activity- and Ion Channel-Dependent Plasticity of Vagal Ganglia in Development

(1)

2.2.4 Trophic Actions of Nonneuronal Cells Associated with Developing Nodose Ganglia

(1)

2.3 Epigenetic Influences on Maintenance of Mature Vagal Afferent Neurons

(12)

2.3.1 Epigenetic Influences on Neurochemistry of Mature Vagal Afferent Neurons

(1)

2.3.1.1 Nitric Oxide

(1)

2.3.1.2 Tyrosine Hydroxylase

(1)

2.3.1.3 Neuropeptides

(1)

2.3.1.4 c-Jun

(1)

2.3.2 Neurotrophins

(1)

2.3.2.1 Neurotrophins Associated with Vagal Afferent Neurons

(1)

2.3.2.2 Neurotrophin Receptors Associated with Vagal Afferent Neurons

(1)

2.3.2.3 Axonal Transport of Neurotrophins by Vagal Afferent Neurons

(1)

2.3.2.4 Neurotrophins and Neurochemical Expression in Vagal Afferent Neurons

(1)

2.3.3 Other Neurotrophic Factors

(1)

2.4 Effect of Vagus Nerve Damage and Disease on Neurotrophins Associated with Vagal Afferent Neurons

(7)

2.4.1 Neurotrophin and Neurotrophin Receptor mRNAs after Vagus Nerve Injury

(1)

2.4.2 Diabetes and Neurotrophins Associated with Vagal Afferent Neurons

(1)

2.4.2.1 Neurotrophins and Neurotrophin Receptors in Diabetes

(1)

2.4.2.2 Axonal Transport of Neurotrophins in Diabetes

(2)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(18)

PART II Vagal Sensory Ganglion Neurons

Chapter 3 Voltage-Gated Ion Channels in Vagal Afferent Neurons

(24)

J.H. Schild, K.D. Alfrey, and B.Y. Li

3.1 Introduction

(2)

3.2 Voltage-Gated Sodium Ion Channels

(3)

3.2.1 TTX-Sensitive Nav

(1)

3.2.2 TTX-Resistant Nav

(2)

3.3 Voltage-Gated Calcium Ion Channels

(2)

3.4 Voltage-Gated Potassium Ion Channels

(3)

3.5 Dynamic Properties of Ionic Currents in Vagal Afferent Neurons

(7)

3.5.1 Na+ and Ca+² Current Dynamics

(1)

3.5.1.1 Functional Role of ITTXS and ITTXR

(1)

3.5.2 K+ Current Dynamics

(2)

3.5.3 Continued Study of the Ionic Currents Underlying Membrane Excitability

(1)

3.6 Voltage Dependent Calcium-Activated Potassium Ion Channels

(1)

3.7 Hyperpolarization Activated Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated Cation Channels

(1)

3.8 Conclusion

(1)

References

(3)

Appendix: Total Transmembrane Current as a Function of Membrane Potential

(3)

Chapter 4 Electrophysiological Studies of Target-Identified Vagal Afferent Cell Bodies

101

(22)

Danny Weinreich

4.1 Introduction

102

(1)

4.2 Anatomy of Vagal Afferent Cell Bodies

103

(1)

4.3 Dissociation of Vagal Afferent Cell Bodies from Adult Vagal Ganglia

104

(1)

4.4 Selection of Dye for Retrograde Labeling Vagal Ganglion Neurons

105

(2)

4.5 Preparations Useful for Studying Vagal Afferent Cell Bodies

107

(1)

4.6 Attributes, Limitations, and Concerns when Studying Isolated Target-Identified Vagal Sensory Cell Bodies

107

(4)

4.6.1 Attributes

107

(3)

4.6.2 Limitations and Concerns

110

(1)

4.7 Physiological Studies of Target-Identified Vagal Afferent Cell Bodies

111

(3)

4.7.1 Studies of Baroreceptors

111

(1)

4.7.2 Airway Vagal Afferent C-Fibers Comprise Two Distinct Phenotypes

112

(1)

4.7.3 Electrophysiological Properties and Chemical Responsiveness of Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Primary Sensory Neurons Innervating the Airways

113

(1)

4.7.4 Bradykinin Excites Airway Sensory Neurons by Promoting a Calcium-Dependent Chloride Current

113

(1)

4.8 Pathophysiological Studies of Target-Identified Vagal Afferent Cell Bodies

114

(1)

4.8.1 Gastric Inflammation

114

(1)

4.8.2 Airway Inflammation

115

(1)

4.9 Conclusions and Future Directions

115

(1)

Acknowledgments

116

(1)

References

116

(7)

PART III Vagal Sensory Nerve Terminals

Chapter 5 Advances in Neural Tracing of Vagal Afferent Nerves and Terminals

123

(24)

Terry L. Powley and Robert J. Phillips

5.1 Overview: Neural Tracers Provide Assignable Phenotypes

124

(1)

5.2 Tracers and Tracer Protocols for Vagal Afferents

125

(9)

5.2.1 Wheatgerm Agglutinin-Horseradish Peroxidase (WGA-HRP)

125

(1)

5.2.1.1 WGA-HRP Protocol

126

(1)

5.2.1.2 Notes on WGA-HRP Protocols

128

(1)

5.2.2 Carbocyanine Dyes

128

(1)

5.2.2.1 DiI Protocol

129

(1)

5.2.2.2 Notes on DiI Protocols

129

(1)

5.2.3 Dextran Amines

130

(1)

5.2.3.1 Dextran, Tetramethylrhodamine (TMR or "Fluoro-Ruby") Protocol

130

(1)

5.2.3.2 Notes on TMR Protocols

131

(1)

5.2.4 Biotin Conjugated Dextran Amines

131

(1)

5.2.4.1 Dextran, Tetramethylrhodamine, and Biotin (TMR-B or 10K "mini-ruby" and 3K "micro-ruby") Protocol

131

(1)

5.2.4.2 Notes on TMR-B Protocols

134

(1)

5.3 Controls and Validations

134

(4)

5.4 Selecting Tracers for Particular Applications

138

(4)

5.4.1 Issues of Field of View, Magnification, and Population Surveys

139

(1)

5.4.2 Resolution or Definition of Endings

140

(1)

5.4.3 Compatibility with Immunohistochemistry and Counterstaining

140

(1)

5.4.4 Double or Multiple Tracer Injections

141

(1)

5.4.5 Permanence of the Labeling

141

(1)

5.4.6 Transport Time

142

(1)

5.5 Summary

142

(1)

Acknowledgments

142

(1)

References

143

(4)

Chapter 6 Mechanotransduction by Vagal Tension Receptors in the Upper Gut

147

(20)

Simon J.H. Brookes, Vladimir P. Zagorodnyuk, and Marcello Costa

6.1 Introduction

147

(2)

6.2 Identification of the Morphological Structure of Vagal Tension Receptors

149

(2)

6.3 Mechanotransduction

151

(1)

6.4 Mechanical Activation of Muscle Mechanoreceptors

152

(5)

6.4.1 Activation of Mechanoreceptors in Intact Organs

155

(1)

6.4.2 Receptive Fields of Mechanoreceptors

156

(1)

6.5 Evidence that Transduction Is Not Chemically Mediated

157

(2)

6.6 Modulation of Vagal Afferent Nerve Endings by Endogenous Chemicals

159

(1)

6.7 Molecular Basis of Transduction in IGLEs

160

(1)

Acknowledgments

161

(1)

References

162

(5)

Chapter 7 Chemical Transduction in Vagal Afferent Nerve Endings

167

(26)

Michael J. Carr

7.1 Introduction

168

(1)

7.2 Stages of Chemotransduction

168

(3)

7.2.1 Transduction

168

(1)

7.2.2 Activation

168

(1)

7.2.3 Amplification

169

(2)

7.2.4 Modulation

171

(1)

7.3 Chemotransducers

171

(11)

7.3.1 Ionotropic Receptors

171

(1)

7.3.1.1 Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) Family of Channels

171

(1)

7.3.1.2 ASICs (Acid Sensitive Ion Channels)

174

(1)

7.3.1.3 5-HT3 Receptor

174

(1)

7.3.1.4 Ionotropic Purine (P2X) Receptors

175

(1)

7.3.1.5 Nicotinic Acetylcholine (nACh) Receptor

176

(1)

7.3.2 Metabotropic Receptors

176

(1)

7.3.2.1 Bradykinin Bz Receptor

177

(1)

7.3.2.2 Cholecystokinin (CCK) Receptors

177

(1)

7.3.2.3 Neurokinin (NK) Receptors

178

(1)

7.3.2.4 Histamine Hi Receptors

178

(1)

7.3.2.5 Eicosanoid Receptors

180

(1)

7.3.2.6 ORL-1 (Nociceptin) Receptor

180

(1)

7.3.2.7 Opioid Receptors

181

(1)

7.3.2.8 GABAB Receptors

181

(1)

7.3.2.9 Cannabinoid (CB) Receptors

181

(1)

7.4 Summary

182

(1)

References

182

(11)

PART IV Connection in the CNS

Chapter 8 Synaptic Transmission in the Nucleus Tractus Solitarius (NTS)

193

(16)

Ann C. Bonham and Chao-Yin Chen

8.1 Overview

193

(1)

8.2 Experimental Approaches

194

(1)

8.3 Core Components of Synaptic Transmission

194

(6)

8.3.1 The Input Signal

195

(1)

8.3.2 The Role of the Second-Order Neuron

195

(1)

8.3.3 Glutamate Is the Cornerstone of Synaptic Transmission

195

(2)

8.3.4 Presynaptic Depression

197

(1)

8.3.5 Physiological Relevance of Synaptic Depression in the NTS

198

(1)

8.3.6 Postsynaptic Mechanisms for Modulating Synaptic Transmission

199

(1)

8.3.7 Intrinsic Properties

199

(1)

8.4 Synaptic Plasticity

200

(1)

8.5 Summary

201

(2)

8.6 Where to Next?

203

(1)

Acknowledgments

204

(1)

References

204

(5)

Chapter 9 Nitroxergic Modulation in the NTS: Implications for Cardiovascular Function

209

(38)

Julian F.R. Paton, James Deuchars, Sheng Wang, and Sergey Kasparov

9.1 Overview

210

(1)

9.2 NO as a Neuro-Modulator - General Concepts and Current Views

210

(4)

9.2.1 Different Nitric Oxide Synthase (NOS) Isoforms in the Brain

211

(1)

9.2.2 Activation of nNOS and eNOS

212

(1)

9.2.2.1 nNOS

212

(1)

9.2.2.2 eNOS

212

(1)

9.2.3 NO Targets within the Brain

213

(1)

9.2.4 Modulation of Synaptic Transmission in the CNS

213

(1)

9.3 NO and the NTS

214

(21)

9.3.1 Where Is the Nitrergic System in this Nucleus

214

(1)

9.3.1.1 Localization of Nitric Oxide Synthesizing Neurones in the NTS

214

(1)

9.3.1.2 Nitrergic NTS Neurones and Their Co-Localization with Other Markers of Cell Phenotype

219

(1)

9.3.1.3 Nitrergic NTS Neurones and Their Co-Localization with Transmitter Receptors

220

(1)

9.3.1.4 Synaptic Input to nNOS Containing Neurones in the NTS

221

(1)

9.3.1.5 Origin and Neurochemistry of nNOS Immunoreactive Axons and Fibers in the NTS

222

(2)

9.3.2 Functional Studies

224

(1)

9.3.2.1 Cardiac and Vascular Responses to NO in the NTS

224

(1)

9.3.2.2 NO in NTS and Modulation of Cardiovascular Reflexes

224

(1)

9.3.2.3 NO in NTS and Interactions with Other Transmitter Substances

228

(1)

9.3.2.4 Making Sense from a Messenger that Is Diffuse

230

(1)

9.3.2.5 Questioning Our Experimental Approach: Are We Being too Heavy Handed?

233

(1)

9.3.2.6 Gene Transfer Approaches to Studying Nitroxergic Mechanisms in the NTS

234

(1)

9.4 Conclusion

235

(1)

Acknowledgments

235

(1)

References

235

(12)

Chapter 10 Monoaminergic Modulation in the Brainstem: Implication for Airway Function

247

(32)

Musa A. Haxhiu, Constance T. Moore, and Prabha Kc

Abstract

248

(1)

10.1 Introduction

248

(1)

10.2 General Considerations

248

(2)

10.3 Structural Characteristics of AVPNs

250

(5)

10.3.1 Ultrastructural Characteristics of AVPNs

252

(2)

10.3.2 CNS Innervation of AVPNs

254

(1)

10.4 Central Monoaminergic Control of AVPNs

255

(9)

10.4.1 Catecholaminergic Neurons

255

(1)

10.4.1.1 Neuroanatomical Studies

257

(1)

10.4.1.2 Microdialysis and HPLC Measurements

259

(1)

10.4.1.3 The Adrenergic Receptor Family

259

(1)

10.4.1.4 Physiological Responses

260

(1)

10.4.2 Serotonergic Neurons

261

(1)

10.4.2.1 Neuroanatomical Studies

261

(1)

10.4.2.2 The Electrochemical Studies

261

(1)

10.4.2.3 The Serotonergic Receptors

263

(1)

10.4.2.4 Physiological Experiments

264

(1)

10.5 Functional Role of Central Control of Cholinergic Outflow to the Airways

264

(1)

10.6 Relevance of Central Monoaminergic Inhibitory Inputs to the AVPNs

265

(2)

10.7 Summary and Future Studies

267

(1)

Acknowledgments

267

(1)

References

267

(12)

PART V Organ-Specific Afferent Nerves

Chapter 11 Bronchopulmonary Vagal Afferent Nerves

279

(36)

Lu-Yuan Lee and Bradley J. Undem

11.1 Introduction

279

(1)

11.2 Classification of Vagal Lung Afferents

280

(10)

11.2.1 Laryngeal Afferents

280

(1)

11.2.2 Bronchopulmonary Afferents

281

(1)

11.2.2.1 Slowly Adapting Pulmonary Stretch Receptors

281

(1)

11.2.2.2 Rapidly Adapting Pulmonary Stretch Receptors

283

(1)

11.2.2.3 Bronchopulmonary C Fibers

285

(4)

11.2.3 Other Types of Lung Afferents

289

(1)

11.2.4 Difference in Afferent Phenotypes Related to Ganglion Origin

289

(1)

11.3 Afferent Properties Altered by Pathophysiological Conditions in the Airways

290

(4)

11.3.1 Acute Airway Injury

291

(1)

11.3.2 Chronic Airway Inflammation

292

(2)

11.4 Inflammatory Mediators Involved in Hypersensitivity of Lung Afferents

294

(8)

11.4.1 Prostaglandin E2

294

(1)

11.4.2 Bradykinin

295

(1)

11.4.3 Hydrogen Ion

296

(2)

11.4.4 Adenosine

298

(3)

11.4.5 Nerve Growth Factor (NGF)

301

(1)

11.5 Conclusion

302

(1)

References

303

(12)

Chapter 12 Vagal Afferents Innervating the Gastrointestinal Tract

315

(36)

Michael J. Beyak and David Grundy

12.1 Introduction

315

(1)

12.2 Morphological Features of the GI Sensory Innervation

316

(2)

12.3 Muscle Mechanoreceptors

318

(5)

12.3.1 Regional Differences in Vagal Mechanosensitivity

319

(1)

12.3.2 The Question of Threshold

320

(2)

12.3.3 Sensitization of Vagal Mechanoreceptors

322

(1)

12.3.4 Chemical Modulation of Mechanosensitivity

323

(1)

12.4 Voltage and Ligand-Gated Ion Channels on GI Vagal Neurons

323

(4)

12.4.1 Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels

324

(1)

12.4.2 Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels

325

(1)

12.4.3 Inflammatory Modulation of Voltage-Gated Channels

326

(1)

12.5 Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

327

(4)

12.5.1 5-HT3

327

(1)

12.5.2 P2X Receptors

328

(1)

12.5.3 Ionotropic Excitatory Amino Acid Receptors

329

(1)

12.5.4 TRPV1 and Other TRP Channels

329

(1)

12.5.5 ASIC Channels

330

(1)

12.6 Mucosal Chemoreceptors

331

(1)

12.7 Sensory Signal Transduction

331

(1)

12.8 Behavioral Aspects of Vagal Afferent Signals

332

(3)

12.9 Cytokines and Illness Behavior

335

(4)

12.9.1 5-HT, Nausea and Vomiting

336

(2)

12.9.2 Sensation: Mediation vs. Modulation

338

(1)

12.10 Conclusion

339

(1)

References

339

(12)

Chapter 13 Cardiac Vagal Afferent Nerves

351

(28)

Harold D. Schultz

13.1 Introduction

351

(1)

13.2 Morphological Characteristics of Cardiac Vagal Afferents

352

(1)

13.3 Electrophysiological Characteristics of Cardiac Vagal Afferents

353

(10)

13.3.1 Single-Fiber Recordings

353

(1)

13.3.2 Patch-Clamp Recordings

354

(1)

13.3.3 Classifications of Sensory Function

355

(1)

13.3.4 Mechanosensitive Cardiac Vagal Afferents

355

(4)

13.3.5 Cellular Mechanisms of Mechanotransduction in Cardiac Vagal Afferents

359

(1)

13.3.6 Chemosensitive Cardiac Vagal Afferents

360

(2)

13.3.7 Cellular Mechanisms of Chemotransduction in Cardiac Vagal Afferents

362

(1)

13.4 Cardiac Vagal Afferent Function in Pathophysiological States

363

(5)

13.4.1 Myocardial Ischemia and Reperfusion

363

(2)

13.4.2 Heart Failure

365

(1)

13.4.3 Hypertension

366

(1)

13.4.4 Diabetes Mellitus

367

(1)

13.5 Summary

368

(1)

References

369

(10)

PART VI Vagal Reflexes and Sensation

Chapter 14 Vagal Afferent Nerve Stimulated Reflexes in the GI Tract

379

(24)

Jyoti N. Sengupta and Reza Shaker

14.1 Introduction

380

(1)

14.2 Esophageal and Supra-Esophageal Reflexes

380

(10)

14.2.1 Esophago-UES Contractile Reflex (EUCR)

381

(1)

14.2.2 Pharyngo-UES Contractile Reflex (PUCR)

382

(2)

14.2.3 Laryngo-UES Contractile Reflex (LUCR)

384

(1)

14.2.4 Esophago-Glottal Closure Reflex (EGCR)

384

(1)

14.2.5 Pharyngo-Glottal Closure Reflex (PGCR)

385

(1)

14.2.6 Pharyngo-Esophageal Inhibitory Reflex (PEIR)

386

(1)

14.2.7 Pharyngeal Swallows (PS)

387

(1)

14.2.8 Pharyngo-LES Reflex Relaxation (PLESR)

388

(1)

14.2.9 Laryngo-LES Reflex Relaxation (LLESR)

388

(1)

14.2.10 Esophago-LES Reflex Relaxation (ELESR)

388

(1)

14.2.11 Laryngo-Gastric Reflex Relaxation (LGRR)

389

(1)

14.2.12 Pharyngo-Gastric Reflex Relaxation (PGRR)

389

(1)

14.2.13 Esophago-Gastric Reflex Relaxation (EGRR)

389

(1)

14.3 Gastric Reflexes

390

(2)

14.3.1 Gastro-LES Reflex Relaxation (GLRR)/Transient LES Relaxation (TLESR)

390

(1)

14.3.2 Gastro-Gastric Reflex

391

(1)

14.3.3 Gastro-Pyloric Reflex Relaxation (GPRR)

391

(1)

14.3.4 Gastro-Duodenal Reflex (GDR)

391

(1)

14.3.5 Gastro-Colonic Reflex (GCR)

392

(1)

14.4 Intestinal Reflexes

392

(1)

14.4.1 Duodeno-Gastric Reflex Relaxation (DGRR)

392

(1)

14.5 Conclusion

393

(1)

References

393

(10)

Chapter 15 Reflexes Initiated by Activation of the Vagal Afferent Nerves Innervating the Airways and Lungs

403

(28)

Brendan J. Canning and Stuart B. Mazzone

15.1 Introduction

404

(1)

15.2 Overview of the Vagal Afferent Innervation to the Airways

404

(2)

15.2.1 Mechanoreceptors

404

(1)

15.2.2 Nociceptors

405

(1)

15.3 Vagally Mediated Respiratory Reflexes and Cough

406

(6)

15.3.1 Methods for Studying Vagal Afferent Control of Respiration and Cough

406

(1)

15.3.1.1 Conscious Animals

407

(1)

15.3.1.2 Anesthetized Animals

408

(1)

15.3.2 The Role of Vagal Afferents in the Control of Breathing

409

(1)

15.3.2.1 Mechanoreceptors

409

(1)

15.3.2.2 Nociceptors

410

(1)

15.3.3 The Role of Vagal Afferent Nerve Subtypes in Regulating the Cough Reflex

411

(1)

15.3.3.1 Mechanoreceptors

411

(1)

15.3.3.2 Nociceptors

412

(1)

15.4 Vagally Mediated Autonomic Reflexes

412

(8)

15.4.1 Morphology of Airway Autonomic Innervation

412

(1)

15.4.2 Monitoring Vagally Mediated Autonomic Reflexes in the Airways

413

(1)

15.4.2.1 Monitoring Reflex Regulation of Airway Smooth Muscle

413

(1)

15.4.2.2 Monitoring Reflex Regulation of Mucus Secretion

415

(1)

15.4.2.3 Monitoring Reflex Regulation of Pulmonary and Bronchial Blood Flow

415

(1)

15.4.3 Vagal Afferent Nerve Mediated Autonomic Reflexes in the Airways

416

(1)

15.4.3.1 Autonomic Reflexes Regulating Airway Smooth Muscle Tone

416

(1)

15.4.3.2 Autonomic Reflexes Regulating Glandular Secretion

417

(1)

15.4.3.3 Autonomic Reflexes Regulating the Bronchial Vasculature

419

(1)

15.4.3.4 Cardiovascular Reflexes Initiated by Activation of Airway Vagal Afferent Nerves

420

(1)

References

420

(11)

Chapter 16 Axon Reflex and Neurogenic Inflammation in Vagal Afferent Nerves

431

(34)

Giovanni Piedimonte

16.1 Introduction

432

(1)

16.2 Tachykinin Peptides, Receptors, and Peptidase

432

(2)

16.2.1 Peptides

432

(1)

16.2.2 Receptors

433

(1)

16.2.3 Peptidases

433

(1)

16.3 Distribution and Function

434

(3)

16.3.1 Peptides

434

(1)

16.3.2 Receptors

435

(1)

16.3.3 Peptidases

436

(1)

16.4 Effects of Tachykinins in the Airway

437

(4)

16.4.1 Plasma Extravasation and Neutrophil Adherence

437

(1)

16.4.2 Blood Flow

438

(1)

16.4.3 Bronchomotor Tone

439

(1)

16.4.4 Mucociliary Clearance

440

(1)

16.4.5 Cough

440

(1)

16.5 Neurogenic Inflammation in the Pathophysiology of Airway Diseases

441

(9)

16.5.1 Respiratory Infections

441

(1)

16.5.2 Neuroimmune Interactions

442

(1)

16.5.3 Age-Dependency

443

(1)

16.5.4 Bronchomotor Tone

443

(1)

16.5.5 Post-Viral Inflammation

444

(1)

16.5.6 Neuroimmunomodulation

445

(1)

16.5.7 Mast Cells

446

(1)

16.5.8 Neurotrophins

447

(2)

16.5.9 The RSV-Asthma Link

449

(1)

16.6 Therapeutic Strategies

450

(4)

16.6.1 Glucocorticoids

450

(1)

16.6.2 Leukotriene Modifiers

451

(1)

16.6.3 (32 Adrenergic Agonists

452

(1)

16.6.4 Tachykinin Antagonists

453

(1)

16.7 Conclusions

454

(1)

References

454

(11)

Chapter 17 Vagal Afferents and Visceral Pain

465

(30)

Wilfrid Jänig

17.1 Introduction

465

(2)

17.2 Vagal Afferents, Spinal Visceral Afferents, Visceral Pain, and Nociception

467

(2)

17.2.1 Pelvic and Abdominal Organs

467

(1)

17.2.2 Thoracic Visceral Organs

468

(1)

17.3 Abdominal Vagal Afferents, Protection of the Body, and Illness Responses

469

(3)

17.4 Role of Vagal Afferents in Nociceptive-Neuroendocrine Control of Experimental Inflammation

472

(4)

17.5 Role of Vagal Afferents in Cutaneous Mechanical Hyperalgesic Behavior

476

(8)

17.5.1 Effect of Subdiaphragmatic Vagotomy on Mechanical Hyperalgesic Behavior

476

(4)

17.5.2 Effect of Defunctionalization of the Sympatho-Adrenal System

480

(1)

17.5.3 Effect of Denervation of Adrenal Medullae 14 Days Following Subdiaphragmatic Vagotomy

480

(4)

17.6 Vagal Afferents and Hyperalgesia: An Interpretation

484

(3)

17.7 Summary

487

(1)

References

488

(7)

Chapter 18 Electrical Stimulation of the Vagus Nerve for the Treatment of Epilepsy

495

(16)

Steven C. Schachter

18.1 Introduction

495

(1)

18.2 Relevant Anatomy

496

(1)

18.3 Mechanism of Action

496

(2)

18.3.1 Neurophysiological Studies

496

(1)

18.3.2 Neuroimaging Studies

497

(1)

18.4 Efficacy of VNS in Animal Models of Epilepsy

498

(1)

18.5 The VNS Therapy System

498

(2)

18.6 VNS Efficacy Studies in Patients with Epilepsy

500

(1)

18.7 Effects of VNS on Other Conditions that Often Occur in Patients with Epilepsy

501

(1)

18.8 Safety and Tolerability of VNS in Patients with Epilepsy

502

(1)

18.9 Clinical Use of Electrical Stimulation of the Vagus Nerve as a Treatment for Epilepsy

503

(1)

18.10 Summary

504

(1)

References

504

(7)

Index

511

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Advances in Vagal Afferent Neurobiology

Summary

Table of Contents

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