Semantics in Generative Grammar

Written by two of the leading figures in the field, this is a lucid and systematic introduction to semantics as applied to transformational grammars of the Government-Binding model. It covers the fundamental constructions thoroughly with analyses, but goes well beyond that core, providing extensive discussion of quantification, binding and anaphora, and ellipsis. With exercises and guides to further reading, the volume will be a key text for graduate level and advanced undergraduate introductory courses in semantics.

Irene Heim is Professor of Linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She is the author of The Semantics of Definite and Indefinite Noun Phrases (1987) and, with Angelika Kratzer, is Founder and Editor of Natural Language Semantics.

Angelika Kratzer is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst and, with Irene Heim, is Founder and Editor of Natural Language Semantics.

Preface

ix

Truth-conditional Semantics and the Fregean Program

1

(12)

Truth-conditional semantics

1

(1)

Frege on compositionality

2

(1)

Tutorial on sets and functions

3

(10)

Sets

4

(1)

Questions and answers about the abstraction notation for sets

5

(5)

Functions

10

(3)

Executing the Fregean Program

13

(30)

First example of a Fregean interpretation

13

(11)

Applying the semantics to an example

16

(4)

Deriving truth-conditions in an extensional semantics

20

(2)

Object language and metalanguage

22

(2)

Sets and their characteristic functions

24

(2)

Adding transitive verbs: semantics types and denotation domains

26

(3)

Schonfinkelization

29

(5)

Defining functions in the λ-notation

34

(9)

Semantics and Syntax

43

(18)

Type-driven interpretation

43

(2)

The structure of the input to semantic interpretation

45

(2)

Well-formedness and interpretability

47

(2)

The Θ-Criterion

49

(4)

Argument structure and linking

53

(8)

More of English: Nonverbal Predicates, Modifiers, Definite Descriptions

61

(25)

Semantically vacuous words

61

(1)

Nonverbal predicates

62

(1)

Predicates as restrictive modifiers

63

(10)

A new composition rule

65

(1)

Modification as functional application

66

(2)

Evidence from nonintersective adjectives?

68

(5)

The definite article

73

(9)

A lexical entry inspired by Frege

73

(2)

Partial denotations and the distinction between presupposition and assertion

75

(5)

Uniqueness and utterance context

80

(1)

Presupposition failure versus uninterpretability

81

(1)

Modifiers in definite descriptions

82

(4)

Relative Clauses, Variables, Variable Binding

86

(45)

Relative clauses as predicates

86

(3)

Semantic composition inside the relative clause

89

(17)

Does the trace pick up a referent?

90

(2)

Variables

92

(4)

Predicate abstraction

96

(3)

A note on proof strategy: bottom up or top down?

99

(7)

Multiple variables

106

(9)

Adding ``such that'' relatives

106

(2)

A problem with nested relatives

108

(1)

Amending the syntax: co-indexing

109

(1)

Amending the semantics

110

(5)

What is variable binding?

115

(8)

Some semantic definitions

116

(4)

Some theorems

120

(1)

Methodological remarks

121

(2)

Interpretability and syntactic constraints on indexing

123

(8)

Quantifiers: Their Semantic Type

131

(47)

Problems with individuals as DP-denotations

131

(7)

Predictions about truth-conditions and entailment patterns

132

(3)

Predictions about ambiguity and the effects of syntactic reorganization

135

(3)

Problems with having DPs denote sets of individuals

138

(2)

The solution: generalized quantifiers

140

(5)

``Something'', ``nothing'', ``everything''

140

(2)

Problems avoided

142

(3)

Quantifying determiners

145

(2)

Quantifier meanings and relations between sets

147

(4)

A little history

147

(2)

Relational and Schonfinkeled denotations for determiners

149

(2)

Formal properties of relational determiner meanings

151

(2)

Presuppositional quantifier phrases

153

(6)

``Both'' and ``neither''

154

(1)

Presuppositionality and the relational theory

154

(3)

Other examples of presupposing DPs

157

(2)

Presuppositional quantifier phrases; controversial cases

159

(19)

Strawson's reconstruction of Aristotelian logic

159

(3)

Are all determiners presuppositional?

162

(3)

Nonextensional interpretation

165

(5)

Nonpresuppositional behavior in weak determiners

170

(8)

Quantification and Grammer

178

(31)

The problem of quantifiers in object position

178

(1)

Repairing the type mismatch in situ

179

(5)

An example of a ``flexible types'' approach

180

(2)

Excursion: quantifiers in natural language and predicate logic

182

(2)

Repairing the type mismatch by movement

184

(5)

Excursion: quantifiers in natural language and predicate logic

189

(4)

Separating quantifiers from variable binding

189

(1)

1-place and 2-place quantifiers

190

(3)

Choosing between quantifier movement and in situ interpretation: three standard arguments

193

(16)

Scope ambiguity and ``inverse'' scope

194

(4)

Anteccedent-contained deletion

198

(2)

Quantifiers that bind pronouns

200

(9)

Syntactic and Semantic Constraints on Quantifier Movement

209

(30)

Which DPs may move, and which one must?

210

(2)

How much moves along? And how far can you move?

212

(2)

What are potential landing sites for moving quantifiers?

214

(1)

Quantifying into VP

215

(6)

Quantifiers taking narrow scope with respect to auxiliary negation

215

(2)

Quantifying into VP, VP-internal subjects, and flexible types

217

(4)

Quantifying into PP, AP, and NP

221

(9)

A problem of undergeneration

221

(4)

PP-internal subjects

225

(3)

Subjects in all lexically headed XPs?

228

(2)

Quantifying into DP

230

(9)

Readings that can only be represented by DP adjunction?

232

(1)

Indirect evidence for DP adjunction: a problem with free IP adjunction?

233

(1)

Summary

234

(5)

Bound and Referential Pronouns and Ellipsis

239

(21)

Referential pronouns as free variables

239

(6)

Deictic versus anaphoric, referential versus bound-variable pronouns

239

(3)

Utterance contexts and variable assignments

242

(3)

Co-references or binding?

245

(3)

Pronouns in the theory of ellipsis

248

(12)

Background: the LF Identity Condition on ellipsis

248

(4)

Referential pronouns and ellipsis

252

(2)

The ``sloppy identity'' puzzle and its solution

254

(6)

Syntactic and Semantic Binding

260

(17)

Indexing and Surface Structure binding

260

(2)

Syntactic binding, semantic binding, and the Binding Principle

262

(3)

Weak Crossover

265

(1)

The Binding Principle and strict and sloppy identity

266

(3)

Syntactic constraints on co-reference?

269

(5)

Summary

274

(3)

E-Type Anaphora

277

(22)

Review of some predictions

277

(3)

Referential pronouns with quantifier antecedents

280

(6)

Pronouns that are neither bound variables nor referential

286

(2)

Paraphrases with definite descriptions

288

(2)

Cooper's analysis of E-Type pronouns

290

(3)

Some applications

293

(6)

First Steps Towards as Intensional Semantics

299

(14)

Where the extensional semantics breaks down

299

(2)

What to do: intensions

301

(2)

An intensional semantics

303

(7)

Limitations and prospects

310

(3)

Index

313

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Semantics in Generative Grammar

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials