Welding Metallurgy and Weldability Of Stainless Steels

, by Lippold, John C.; Kotecki, Damian J.

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ISBN: 9780471473794 | 0471473790
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 4/1/2005

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Welding Metallurgy and Weldability of Stainless Steels, the first book in over twenty years to address welding metallurgy and weldability issues associated with stainless steel, offers the most up-to-date and comprehensive treatment of these topics currently available. The authors emphasize fundamental metallurgical principles governing microstructure evolution and property development of stainless steels, including martensistic, ferric, austenitic, duplex, and precipitation hardening grades. They present a logical and well-organized look at the history, evolution, and primary uses of each stainless steel, including detailed descriptions of the associated weldability issues.

PREFACE

1 INTRODUCTION

(7)

1.1 Definition of a Stainless Steel

(1)

1.2 History of Stainless Steel

(2)

1.3 Types of Stainless Steel and Their Application

(1)

1.4 Corrosion Resistance

(1)

1.5 Production of Stainless Steel

(1)

References

(1)

2 PHASE DIAGRAMS

(11)

2.1 Iron-Chromium System

(1)

2.2 Iron-Chromium-Carbon System

(2)

2.3 Iron-Chromium-Nickel System

(3)

2.4 Phase Diagrams for Specific Alloy Systems

(3)

References

(1)

3 ALLOYING ELEMENTS AND CONSTITUTION DIAGRAMS

(37)

3.1 Alloying Elements in Stainless Steels

(5)

3.1.1 Chromium

(1)

3.1.2 Nickel

(1)

3.1.3 Manganese

(1)

3.1.4 Silicon

(1)

3.1.5 Molybdenum

(1)

3.1.6 Carbide-Forming Elements

(1)

3.1.7 Precipitation-Hardening Elements

(1)

3.1.8 Interstitial Elements: Carbon and Nitrogen

(1)

3.1.9 Other Elements

(1)

3.2 Ferrite-Promoting Versus Austenite-Promoting Elements

(1)

3.3 Constitution Diagrams

(18)

3.3.1 Austenitic-Ferritic Alloy Systems: Early Diagrams and Equivalency Relationships

(4)

3.3.2 Schaeffler Diagram

(4)

3.3.3 DeLong Diagram

(1)

3.3.4 Other Diagrams

(6)

3.3.5 WRC-1988 and WRC-1992 Diagrams

(3)

3.4 Austenitic-Martensitic Alloy Systems

(3)

3.5 Ferritic-Martensitic Alloy Systems

(4)

3.6 Neural Network Ferrite Prediction

(2)

References

(4)

4 MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS

(31)

4.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables

(2)

4.2 Physical and Mechanical Metallurgy

(4)

4.3 Welding Metallurgy

(14)

4.3.1 Fusion Zone

(4)

4.3.2 Heat-Affected Zone

(3)

4.3.3 Phase Transformations

(1)

4.3.4 Postweld Heat Treatment

(3)

4.3.5 Preheat, Interpass, and Postweld Heat Treatment Guidelines

(3)

4.4 Mechanical Properties of Weldments

(1)

4.5 Weldability

(3)

4.5.1 Solidification and Liquation Cracking

(1)

4.5.2 Reheat Cracking

(1)

4.5.3 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

(1)

4.6 Supermartensitic Stainless Steels

(4)

4.7 Case Study: Calculation of Ms Temperatures of Martensitic Stainless Steels

(2)

References

(1)

5 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

(54)

5.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables

(4)

5.2 Physical and Mechanical Metallurgy

(12)

5.2.1 Effect of Alloying Additions on Microstructure

(1)

5.2.2 Effect of Martensite

(1)

5.2.3 Embrittlement Phenomena

(8)

5.2.3.1 475°C Embrittlement

(1)

5.2.3.2 Sigma and Chi Phase Embrittlement

(1)

5.2.3.3 High-Temperature Embrittlement

(5)

5.2.3.4 Notch Sensitivity

103

(1)

5.2.4 Mechanical Properties

104

(1)

5.3 Welding Metallurgy

104

(10)

5.3.1 Fusion Zone

104

(8)

5.3.1.1 Solidification and Transformation Sequence

104

(5)

5.3.1.2 Precipitation Behavior

109

(2)

5.3.1.3 Microstructure Prediction

111

(1)

5.3.2 Heat-Affected Zone

112

(1)

5.3.3 Solid-State Welds

113

(1)

5.4 Mechanical Properties of Weldments

114

(9)

5.4.1 Low-Chromium Alloys

114

(2)

5.4.2 Medium-Chromium Alloys

116

(3)

5.4.3 High-Chromium Alloys

119

(4)

5.5 Weldability

123

(3)

5.5.1 Weld Solidification Cracking

123

(1)

5.5.2 High-Temperature Embrittlement

124

(2)

5.5.3 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

126

(1)

5.6 Corrosion Resistance

126

(4)

5.7 Postweld Heat Treatment

130

(2)

5.8 Filler Metal Selection

132

(1)

5.9 Case Study: HAZ Cracking in Type 436 During Cold Deformation

132

(3)

5.10 Case Study: Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking in the HAZ of Type 430

135

(2)

References

137

(4)

6 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

141

(89)

6.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables

143

(4)

6.2 Physical and Mechanical Metallurgy

147

(4)

6.2.1 Mechanical Properties

149

(2)

6.3 Welding Metallurgy

151

(17)

6.3.1 Fusion Zone Microstructure Evolution

153

(9)

6.3.1.1 Type A: Fully Austenitic Solidification

154

(1)

6.3.1.2 Type AF Solidification

155

(1)

6.3.1.3 Type FA Solidification

155

(3)

6.3.1.4 Type F Solidification

158

(4)

6.3.2 Interfaces in Single-Phase Austenitic Weld Metal

162

(2)

6.3.2.1 Solidification Subgrain Boundaries

162

(1)

6.3.2.2 Solidification Grain Boundaries

163

(1)

6.3.2.3 Migrated Grain Boundaries

163

(1)

6.3.3 Heat-Affected Zone

164

(2)

6.3.3.1 Grain Growth

165

(1)

6.3.3.2 Ferrite Formation

165

(1)

6.3.3.3 Precipitation

165

(1)

6.3.3.4 Grain Boundary Liquation

166

(1)

6.3.4 Preheat and Interpass Temperature and Postweld Heat Treatment

166

(7)

6.3.4.1 Intermediate-Temperature Embrittlement

167

(1)

6.4 Mechanical Properties of Weldments

168

(5)

6.5 Weldability

173

(27)

6.5.1 Weld Solidification Cracking

173

(16)

6.5.1.1 Beneficial Effects of Primary Ferrite Solidification

175

(2)

6.5.1.2 Use of Predictive Diagrams

177

(2)

6.5.1.3 Effect of Impurity Elements

179

(2)

6.5.1.4 Ferrite Measurement

181

(1)

6.5.1.5 Effect of Rapid Solidification

182

(4)

6.5.1.6 Solidification Cracking Fracture Morphology

186

(3)

6.5.1.7 Preventing Weld Solidification Cracking

189

(1)

6.5.2 HAZ Liquation Cracking

189

(1)

6.5.3 Weld Metal Liquation Cracking

190

(4)

6.5.4 Ductility-Dip Cracking

194

(2)

6.5.5 Reheat Cracking

196

(3)

6.5.6 Copper Contamination Cracking

199

(1)

6.5.7 Zinc Contamination Cracking

200

(1)

6.5.8 Helium-Induced Cracking

200

(1)

6.6 Corrosion Resistance

200

(11)

6.6.1 Intergranular Corrosion

201

(5)

6.6.1.1 Preventing Sensitization

204

(1)

6.6.1.2 Knifeline Attack

205

(1)

6.6.1.3 Low-Temperature Sensitization

205

(1)

6.6.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking

206

(2)

6.6.3 Pitting and Crevice Corrosion

208

(1)

6.6.4 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion

208

(1)

6.6.5 Selective Ferrite Attack

209

(2)

6.7 Specialty Alloys

211

(9)

6.7.1 Heat-Resistant Alloys

211

(3)

6.7.2 High-Nitrogen Alloys

214

(6)

6.8 Case Study: Selecting the Right Filler Metal

220

(3)

6.9 Case Study: What's Wrong with My Swimming Pool?

223

(1)

6.10 Case Study: Cracking in the Heat-Affected Zone

224

(1)

References

225

(5)

7 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS

230

(34)

7.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables

231

(3)

7.2 Physical Metallurgy

234

(3)

7.2.1 Austenite-Ferrite Phase Balance

234

(3)

7.2.2 Precipitation Reactions

237

(1)

7.3 Mechanical Properties

237

(1)

7.4 Welding Metallurgy

238

(12)

7.4.1 Solidification Behavior

238

(2)

7.4.2 Role of Nitrogen

240

(4)

7.4.3 Secondary Austenite

244

(2)

7.4.4 Heat-Affected Zone

246

(4)

7.5 Controlling the Ferrite-Austenite Balance

250

(4)

7.5.1 Heat Input

251

(1)

7.5.2 Cooling Rate Effects

251

(2)

7.5.3 Ferrite Prediction and Measurement

253

(1)

7.6 Weldability

254

(5)

7.6.1 Weld Solidification Cracking

254

(1)

7.6.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

254

(1)

7.6.3 Intermediate-Temperature Enbrittlement

255

(6)

7.6.3.1 Alpha-Prime Embrittlement

256

(1)

7.6.3.2 Sigma Phase Embrittlement

256

(3)

7.7 Weld Mechanical Properties

259

(2)

7.8 Corrosion Resistance

261

(1)

7.8.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking

261

(1)

7.8.2 Pitting Corrosion

261

(1)

References

262

(2)

8 PRECIPITATION-HARDENING STAINLESS STEELS

264

(23)

8.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables

265

(2)

8.2 Physical and Mechanical Metallurgy

267

(10)

8.2.1 Martensitic Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels

269

(5)

8.2.2 Semi-Austenitic Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels

274

(2)

8.2.3 Austenitic Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels

276

(1)

8.3 Welding Metallurgy

277

(2)

8.3.1 Microstructure Evolution

278

(1)

8.3.2 Postweld Heat Treatment

278

(1)

8.4 Mechanical Properties of Weldments

279

(1)

8.5 Weldability

280

(5)

8.6 Corrosion Resistance

285

(1)

References

285

(2)

9 DISSIMILAR WELDING OF STAINLESS STEELS

287

(22)

9.1 Applications of Dissimilar Welds

287

(1)

9.2 Carbon or Low-Alloy Steel to Austenitic Stainless Steel

288

(8)

9.2.1 Determining Weld Metal Constitution

288

(3)

9.2.2 Fusion Boundary Transition Region

291

(3)

9.2.3 Nature of Type II Boundaries

294

(2)

9.3 Weldability

296

(5)

9.3.1 Solidification Cracking

296

(2)

9.3.2 Clad Disbonding

298

(1)

9.3.3 Creep Failure in the HAZ of Carbon or Low-Alloy Steel

299

(2)

9.4 Other Dissimilar Combinations

301

(6)

9.4.1 Nominally Austenitic Alloys Whose Melted Zone Is Expected to Include Some Ferrite or to Solidify as Primary Ferrite

301

(1)

9.4.2 Nominally Austenitic Alloys Whose Melted Zone Is Expected to Contain Some Ferrite, Welded to Fully Austenitic Stainless Steel

301

(1)

9.4.3 Austenitic Stainless Steel Joined to Duplex Stainless Steel

302

(1)

9.4.4 Austenitic Stainless Steel Joined to Ferritic Stainless Steel

302

(1)

9.4.5 Austenitic Stainless Steel Joined to Martensitic Stainless Steel

302

(1)

9.4.6 Martensitic Stainless Steel Joined to Ferritic Stainless Steel

302

(1)

9.4.7 Stainless Steel Filler Metal for Difficult-to-Weld Steels

303

(2)

9.4.8 Copper-Base Alloys Joined to Stainless Steels

305

(1)

9.4.9 Nickel-Base Alloys Joined to Stainless Steels

306

(1)

References

307

(2)

10 WELDABILITY TESTING

309

(22)

10.1 Introduction

309

(2)

10.1.1 Weldability Test Approaches

310

(1)

10.1.2 Weldability Test Techniques

310

(1)

10.2 Varestraint Test

311

(8)

10.2.1 Technique for Quantifying Weld Solidification Cracking

312

(4)

10.2.2 Technique for Quantifying HAZ Liquation Cracking

316

(3)

10.3 Hot Ductility Test

319

(4)

10.4 Fissure Bend Test

323

(5)

10.5 Strain-to-Fracture Test

328

(1)

10.6 Other Weldability Tests

329

(1)

References

329

(2)

APPENDIX 1 NOMINAL COMPOSITIONS OF STAINLESS STEELS

331

(12)

APPENDIX 2 ETCHING TECHNIQUES FOR STAINLESS STEEL WELDS

343

(4)

AUTHOR INDEX

347

(6)

SUBJECT INDEX

353

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Welding Metallurgy and Weldability Of Stainless Steels

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials