Fire Retardancy of Polymers

, by Le Bras, Michel; Wilkie, Charles A.; Bourbigot, Serge

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ISBN: 9780854045822 | 0854045821
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Copyright: 5/30/2005

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The use of polymers is restricted by their flammability - they may indeed initiate or propagate fire. Fire Retardancy of Polymers focuses on mineral additives from either micro- or nano-composites for application in fire retardants. With the use of fire retardant additives containing halogen or phosphorus compounds in decline, the need for other systems is evident. The major materials that are used are alumina trihydrate or magnesium hydroxide which account for more than 50% by weight of the world-wide sales of fire retardants. Recent works have shown that such halogen-free compounds may give enhanced fire retardancy to polymeric materials when used in low levels, alone, or in synergistic mixtures. The corresponding fire performance depends on the dispersion of the mineral filler, with micrometer-scale dispersion leading to the best performances. Specialists discuss these new applications of mineral fillers with particular emphasis on action mechanisms, new materials including textiles, toxicology and hazards. With extensive references, this book provides a comprehensive and up-to-date view of these applications. This book will appeal to professionals, materials scientists and engineers looking for novel ways to eliminate fire hazards and improve flame retardancy of materials, with a special interest in sustainable development.

Abbreviations

xxiv

General Considerations on the Use of Fillers and Nanocomposites

Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Use of Fillers and Nanocomposites in Fire Retardancy (Invited Review)

(18)

C.A. Wilkie

1.1 Introduction

(1)

1.2 Characterization of Fire Retardancy of Polymers

(1)

1.3 Fire Retardant Fillers for Polymers

(1)

1.4 Nanocomposites

(8)

1.4.1 Preparation and Modeling of Nanocomposites

(1)

1.4.2 Organic Clay Modification

(1)

1.4.3 Determination of the Morphology of Nanocomposites

(1)

1.4.4 Utility of Nanocomposites

(1)

1.4.5 Modeling of Fire Retardancy Due to Nanocomposite Formation

(1)

1.4.6 Mechanisms by which Nanocomposites Enhance the Fire Retardancy of Polymers

(2)

1.4.7 Fire Retardancy Due to Nanocomposite Formation

(1)

1.5 Conclusion - the Future of Fillers and Nanocomposites in Fire Retardancy

(1)

1.6 References

(6)

Micro-sized Fire Retardant Fillers

Chapter 2 Fire Retardant Fillers for Polymers (Invited Review)

(23)

P.R. Hornsby and R.N. Rothon

2.1 Fire Retardant Fillers Available

(3)

2.1.1 Aluminium Hydroxides

(1)

2.1.2 Magnesium Hydroxide, Mg(OH)2

(1)

2.1.3 Basic Magnesium Carbonates

(1)

2.1.4 Boehmite, AlO(OH)

(1)

2.1.5 Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate, (Gypsum) CaSO4.2H2O

(1)

2.2 Mechanistic Studies

(5)

2.2.1 Flame Retardancy

(1)

2.2.1.1 Thermal Effects from Filler

(1)

2.2.1.2 Dilution of Combustible Polymer

(1)

2.2.1.3 Filler/Polymer Interactions

(1)

2.2.1.4 Vapour Phase Action

(1)

2.2.1.5 Effects of Filler Particle Size and Morphology

(1)

2.2.2 Smoke Suppression

(1)

2.2.3 Incandescence

(1)

2.3 Synergists for Hydrated Fillers

(4)

2.4 Processing and Considerations on Mechanical Property

(5)

2.4.1 Rheological Issues

(3)

2.4.2 Enhancement of Mechanical Properties

(1)

2.4.3 Alternative Processing Strategies for Hydrated Fillers

(1)

2.5 Conclusions

(1)

2.6 References

(5)

Chapter 3 Lamellar Double Hydroxides/Polymer Composites: A New Class of Fire Retardant Materials

(12)

J. Lefebvre, M. Le Bras and S. Bourbigot

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 Description of LDHs materials

(1)

3.3 Synthesis of LDHs/Polymer nanocomposites

(1)

3.3.1 Intercalation of monomer molecules followed by "in situ" polymerization

(1)

3.3.2 Direct Intercalation of Extended Polymer Chains Between Ldhs Layers

(1)

3.3.3 Transformation of Host Material into a Colloid System and Precipitation in the Presence of the Polymer

(1)

3.4 Mechanical properties of LDHs/Polymer composites

(2)

3.5 Thermal Stability of LDHs/Polymer Nanocomposites

(3)

3.6 Flame Resistance of LDHs/Polymer Composites

(1)

3.7 Conclusions

(1)

3.8 References

(2)

Chapter 4 Effect of a Small Amount of Flame Retardant on the Combustion of PC, PBT and PET

(14)

T. Ohkawa, T. Ishikawa and K. Takeda

4.1 Introduction

(1)

4.2 Experimental

(1)

4.3 Results

(4)

4.3.1 Combustion Data of Blends with PPFBS, PTFMS and PPh

(2)

4.3.2 Combustion of Blends with Metal Oxides, Red Phosphorous

(1)

4.3.3 TGA and Elemental Analysis of PC

(1)

4.4 Discussion

(6)

4.4.1 Degradation at Different Temperatures

(1)

4.4.2 Degradation Paths of Neat-PC and Blends

(1)

4.4.3 Estimated Char Structures

(1)

4.4.4 Degradation Routes and Flame Retardancy

(3)

4.5 Acknowledgement

(1)

4.6 References

(2)

Chapter 5 Intumescent Silicates: Synthesis, Characterization and Fire Protective Effect

(13)

C. Pélégris, M. Rivenet and M. Traisnel

5.1 Introduction

(1)

5.2 Silicate Solution Chemistry

(1)

5.3 Experimental

(2)

5.3.1 Sample Preparation

(1)

5.3.1.1 Aqueous Silicates

(1)

5.3.1.2 Dried Silicates

(1)

5.3.2 Blending of Dried Silicates Powders and Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA-19%) Polymer

(1)

5.3.3 Characterisation

(1)

5.3.3.1 Intumescence Test

(1)

5.3.3.2 TGA Studies

(1)

5.3.3.3 Lixiviation Test

(1)

5.3.3.4 Infrared Spectroscopy

(1)

5.3.3.5 Fire Protective Effect

(1)

5.4 Results and Discussion

(5)

5.5 Conclusion

(1)

5.6 References

(3)

Use of Nanocomposite Materials

Chapter 6 Flammability of Nanocomposites: Effects of the Shape of Nanoparticles (Invited Review)

(19)

T. Kashiwagi

6.1 Introduction

(1)

6.2 Flammability Measurement

(1)

6.3 Polymer-Nanosilica Nanocomposites

(4)

6.4 Polymer-Clay Nanocomposites

(5)

6.5 Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposites

(4)

6.6 Discussion

(2)

6.7 Conclusion

(1)

6.6 Acknowledgement

(1)

6.7 References

(1)

Chapter 7 Thermal Degradation and Combustibility of Polypropylene Filled with Magnesium Hydroxide Micro-filler and Polypropylene Nano-filled Aluminosilicate Composite

100

(14)

S.M. Lomakin, G.E. Zaikov and E.V. Koverzanova

7.1 Introduction

100

(2)

7.2 Experimental

102

(1)

7.2.1 Materials

102

(1)

7.2.2 Thermal Analysis

102

(1)

7.2.3 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Analysis (GC-MS)

102

(1)

7.2.4 Clay and Composite Characterization

103

(1)

7.3 Results and Discussion

103

(10)

7.4 References

113

(1)

Chapter 8 Effect of the Processing Conditions on the Fire Retardant and Thermo-mechanical Properties of PP-Clay Nanocomposites

114

(12)

A. Bendaoudi, S. Duquesne, C. Jama, M. Le Bras, R. Delobel, P. Recourt, J.-M. Gloaguen, J.-M. Lefebvre and A. Addad

8.1 Introduction

114

(1)

8.2 Experimental

115

(2)

8.2.1 Materials

115

(1)

8.2.2 Cone Calorimetry

116

(1)

8.2.3 Thermogravimetry

116

(1)

8.2.4 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis

117

(1)

8.2.5 Characterization of Nanocomposites

117

(1)

8.2.6 Experimental Design

117

(1)

8.3 Results and Discussion

117

(6)

8.3.1 Fire Retardant Performance of PP Nanocomposites

117

(2)

8.3.2 Thermal Stability of PP/PP-g-MA/20A Nanocomposites

119

(2)

8.3.3 Dynamic Thermo-Mechanical Properties of PP Nanocomposites

121

(1)

8.3.4 Characterization of PP Nanocomposites

121

(2)

8.4 Conclusion

123

(1)

8.5 References

124

(2)

Chapter 9 Fire Retardancy of Polystyrene - Hectorite Nanocomposite

126

(13)

D. Wang, B.N. Jang, S. Su, J. Zhang, X. Zheng, G. Chigwada, D.D. Jiang, and C.A. Wilkie

9.1 Introduction

126

(1)

9.2 Experimental

127

(2)

9.2.1 Materials

127

(1)

9.2.2 Organic Modification of Hectorite

128

(1)

9.2.3 Preparation of Nanocomposites

128

(1)

9.2.4 Instrumentation

128

(1)

9.3 Results and Discussions

129

(7)

9.3.1 X-ray Diffraction

129

(1)

9.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy

129

(2)

9.3.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis

131

(1)

9.3.4 Cone Calorimetry

131

(5)

9.4 Conclusions

136

(1)

9.5 Acknowledgement

137

(1)

9.6 References

137

(2)

Chapter 10 Pyrolysis and Flammability of Polyurethane - Organophilic Clay Nanocomposite

139

(8)

G.E. Zaikov, S.M. Lomakin and RA. Sheptalin

10.1 Introduction

139

(1)

10.2 Experimental

140

(2)

10.2.1 Materials

140

(1)

10.2.2 Preparation of Organophilic Montmorillonite (OM)

140

(1)

10.2.3 Synthesis of Propylene Oxide-OM (PO-OM)

140

(1)

10.2.4 Synthesis of Polyurethane-Organophilic Montmorillonite Nanocomposite (PU-OM)

140

(1)

10.2.5 XRD Characterization

141

(1)

10.2.6 Pyrolysis

141

(1)

10.2.7 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Analysis

141

(1)

10.2.8 Combustion Tests

142

(1)

10.3 Results and Discussion

142

(4)

10.4 References

146

(1)

Chapter 11 Thermal Degradation Behaviour Of Flame-Retardant Unsaturated Polyester Resins Incorporating Functionalised Nanoclays

147

(14)

B.K Kandola, S. Nazare and A.R. Horrocks

11.1 Introduction

147

(1)

11.2 Experimental

148

(1)

11.2.1 Materials

148

(1)

11.2.2 Preparation of Polyester-Clay Nanocomposites

149

(1)

11.2.3 Equipment

149

(1)

11.3 Results and Discussion

149

(10)

11.3.1 Thermal Degradation of Clays

150

(3)

11.3.2 Thermal Degradation of Resin

153

(1)

11.3.3 Effect of Different Clays on Thermal Degradation of Resin

153

(2)

11.3.4 Effect of Flame Retardants on Thermal Degradation of Polyester Resin

155

(1)

11.3.5 Effect of Clays on Thermal Degradation of Flame Retarded Resin

156

(3)

11.4 Conclusions

159

(1)

11.5 Acknowledgements

159

(1)

11.6 References

159

(2)

Chapter 12 Comparative Study of Nano-effect on Fire Retardancy of Polymer-Graphite Oxide Nanocomposites

161

(16)

J. Wang and Z. Han

12.1 Introduction

161

(1)

12.2 Experimental

162

(1)

12.2.1 Sample Preparation

162

(1)

12.2.2 Characterization Techniques

162

(1)

12.3 Results and Discussion

162

(12)

12.3.1 Morphological Structure

162

(1)

12.3.2 Fire Retardancy

163

(4)

12.3.3 Mechanistic Study (TGA/XPS)

167

(7)

12.4 Conclusions

174

(1)

12.5 References

175

(2)

Chapter 13 Styrene-Acrylonitrile Copolymer Montmorillonite Nanocomposite: Processing, Characterization and Flammability

177

(12)

J.W. Gilman, S. Bellayer, S. Bourbigot, H. Stretz and D.R. Paul

13.1 Introduction

177

(1)

13.2 Experimentala

178

(2)

13.2.1 Preparation of Nanocomposites

178

(1)

13.2.2 NMR Spectroscopy

179

(1)

13.2.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy

179

(1)

13.2.4 Tensile Properties

180

(1)

13.2.5 Cone Calorimetry by Mass Loss Calorimeter

180

(1)

13.3 Results and Discussion

180

(5)

13.3.1 Characterization by XRD and TEM

180

(1)

13.3.2 T1H of Nanocomposite

181

(2)

13.3.3 Tensile Properties

183

(1)

13.3.4 Flammability Properties

184

(1)

13.4 Conclusion

185

(1)

13.5 References

185

(4)

Micro-sized Fire Retarding Mineral Fillers

Chapter 14 Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxanes: Application to Flame Retardant Textiles (Invited Paper)

189

(13)

S. Bourbigot , M. Le Bras, X. Flambard, M. Rochery, E. Devaux and J.D. Lichtenhan

14.1 Introduction

189

(3)

14.2 Experimental

192

(3)

14.2.1 Raw Materials

192

(1)

14.2.2 Processing of Nanocomposite Textiles

193

(1)

14.2.2.1 PP-POSS Multifilament Yarns

193

(1)

14.2.2.2 Knitted Fabric of PP-POSS Multifilament Yarns

193

(1)

14.2.2.3 Synthesis of Polyurethane Nanocomposite

193

(1)

14.2.2.4 Polyester Fabric Coated with Polyurethane Nanocomposite

193

(1)

14.2.3 Solid State NMR

194

(1)

14.2.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis

194

(1)

14.2.5 Cone Calorimetry by Oxygen Consumption

194

(1)

14.3 Results and Discussion

195

(4)

14.3.1 PP-POSS Multifilament Yarns

195

(2)

14.3.2 TPU-POSS Coating

197

(2)

14.4 Conclusion

199

(1)

14.5 Acknowledgements

200

(1)

14.6 References

200

(2)

Chapter 15 Octaisobutyl POSS Thermal Degradation

202

(21)

A. Fina, D. Tabuani, A. Frache, E. Boccaleri and G. Camino

15.1 Introduction

202

(2)

15.2 Experimental

204

(1)

15.3 Results and Discussion

205

(13)

15.3.1 Thermal Degradation in Inert Conditions

205

(5)

15.3.2 Thermal Degradation in Oxidative Conditions

210

(8)

15.4 Conclusions

218

(1)

15.5 Acknowledgements

219

(1)

15.6 References

219

(4)

Mineral Fillers in Synergistic Systems

Chapter 16 Interactions between Nanoclays and Flame Retardant Additives in Polyamide 6, and Polyamide 6.6 Films (Invited Paper)

223

(16)

A.R. Horrocks, B.K. Kandola and S.A. Padbury

16.1 Introduction

223

(1)

16.2 Experimental

224

(1)

16.2.1 Materials

224

(1)

16.2.2 Film Preparation

225

(1)

16.2.3 Flammability Measurement

225

(1)

16.2.4 Thermal Analysis

225

(1)

16.3 Results and Discussion

225

(10)

16.3.1 Thermal Analytical Behaviour: Nanocomposite Character

225

(4)

16.3.2 Limiting Oxygen Index Measurements

229

(1)

16.3.2.1 Polyamide 6.6

229

(1)

16.3.2.2 Polyamide 6

233

(2)

16.4 A Simple Model for Nanoclay-Fr Interation

235

(2)

16.5 References

237

(2)

Chapter 17 Use of Clay-Nanocomposite Matrixes in Fire Retardant Polyolefin-based Intumescent Systems

239

(9)

S. Duquesne, S. Bourbigot, M. Le Bras, C. Jama and R. Delobel

17.1 Introduction

239

(1)

17.2 Experimental

240

(2)

17.2.1 Materials

240

(1)

17.2.1.1 EVA, Nanocomposite

240

(1)

17.2.1.2 PP Nanocomposite

240

(1)

17.2.1.3 Intumescent Systems

241

(1)

17.2.2 Fire Testing

241

(1)

17.2.2.1 Cone Calorimeter

241

(1)

17.2.2.2 Limiting Oxygen Index

241

(1)

17.2.2.3 UL-94

242

(1)

17.3 Results and Discussion

242

(4)

17.3.1 Fire Retardant Performance of EVA Based Systems

242

(1)

17.3.2 Fire Retardant Performance of PP Based Systems

243

(3)

17.4 Conclusion

246

(1)

17.5 Acknowledgement

246

(1)

17.6 References

246

(2)

Chapter 18 Effect of Hydroxides on Fire Retardance Mechanism of Intumescent EVA Composition

248

(16)

G. Camino, A. Riva, D. Vizzini, A. Castrovinci, P. Amigouët and P. Bras Pereira

18.1 Introduction

248

(1)

18.2 Experimental

249

(2)

18.2.1 Materials

249

(1)

18.2.2 Combined Thermogravimetry-infrared-evolved Gas Analysis (TGA-FTIR-EGA)

249

(1)

18.2.3 Expansion Measurements

250

(1)

18.2.4 Oxygen Consumption Calorimetry (Cone Calorimeter)

250

(1)

18.3 Results and Discussion

251

(11)

18.3.1 Flammability Behaviour

251

(1)

18.3.2 Thermal Degradation of APP in the Presence of MH or ATH

252

(1)

18.3.2.1 ATH and MH

253

(1)

18.3.2.2 APP

253

(1)

18.3.2.3 APP-MH mixtures

254

(1)

18.3.2.4 APP-ATH mixtures

257

(2)

18.3.3 Expansion Behaviour of Intumescent Mixtures Containing MH

259

(3)

18.4 Conclusions

262

(1)

18.5 References

263

(1)

Chapter 19 Barrier Effects for the Fire Retardancy of Polymers

264

(12)

B. Schartel, M. Bartholmai and U. Braun

19.1 Introduction

264

(1)

19.2 Experimental

265

(1)

19.3 Results and discussion

266

(7)

19.3.1 Role of Barrier Effects and Residue in Char Forming Systems

266

(3)

19.3.2 The Effect of Inorganic Residue in Contrast to Char

269

(2)

19.3.3 The Role of Insulation Properties in Contrast to Mass Transfer Barrier

271

(2)

19.4 Conclusion

273

(1)

19.5 Acknowledgements

274

(1)

19.6 References

274

(2)

Chapter 20 Plasma Assisted Process for Fire Properties Improvement of Polyamide and Clay Nanocomposite Reinforced Polyamide: A Scale-up Study

276

(15)

A. Quédé, B. Mutel, C. Jama, P. Goudmand, M. Le Bras, O. Dessaux and R Delobel

20.1 Introduction

276

(1)

20.2 Experimental

277

(2)

20.2.1 Reactor

277

(1)

20.2.2 Characterization Techniques

278

(1)

20.2.3 Samples

279

(1)

20.3 Results

279

(8)

20.3.1 Influence of dis on Both the Deposition Rate and The Radial Thickness Homogeneity of Films Deposited in the L-reactor

279

(1)

20.3.2 Comparison of Deposition Rate, Radial Homogeneity and Specific Gravity of the Films Obtained with the Two Reactors

280

(1)

20.3.3 FTIR Study: Comparison of the Chemical Structure of Films Obtained with the Two Reactors

280

(1)

20.3.4 SEM Study: Comparison of the Morphology of Films Obtained with the Two Reactors

280

(2)

20.3.5 Flame Retardant Properties

282

(1)

20.3.5.1 LOI Tests

282

(1)

20.3.5.2 Cone Calorimeter Measurements

285

(2)

20.4 Conclusions

287

(2)

20.5 Acknowledgments

289

(1)

20.6 References

289

(2)

Chapter 21 Fire Retardant Polypropylene/flax Blends: Use of Hydroxides

291

(11)

M. Fois, M. Grisel, M. Le Bras, S. Duquesne and F. Poutch

21.1 Introduction

291

(2)

21.2 Experimental

293

(1)

21.2.1 Materials

293

(1)

21.2.2 Fire Testings

293

(1)

21.2.3 Thermogravimetric Analyses

293

(1)

21.2.4 Mechanical Characterisations

294

(1)

21.3 Results and Discussion

294

(5)

21.3.1 Fire Performances

294

(4)

21.3.2 Mechanical Properties

298

(1)

21.4 Conclusion

299

(1)

21.5 References

299

(3)

Chapter 22 Intumescence in Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Copolymer filled with Magnesium Hydroxide and Organoclays

302

(11)

L. Ferry, P. Gaudon, E. Leroy and J.-M. Lopez Cuesta

22.1 Introduction

302

(1)

22.2 Experimental

303

(2)

22.2.1 Materials

303

(1)

22.2.2 Processing

303

(1)

22.2.3 Experimental Techniques

304

(1)

22.3 Results and Discussion

305

(7)

22.3.1 Structural Characterization

305

(1)

22.3.2 Thermal Analysis

306

(1)

22.3.3 Fire Properties

307

(1)

22.3.3.1 Epiradiateur Test

307

(1)

22.3.3.2 LOI Test

308

(1)

22.3.3.3 Cone Calorimeter

309

(3)

22.4 Conclusions

312

(1)

22.5 References

312

(1)

Chapter 23 Spent Oil Refinery Catalyst: A Synergistic Agent in Intumescent Formulations for Polyethylenic Materials

313

(14)

L.R. de Moura Estevão, R.S.V. Nascimento, M. Le Bras and R. Delobel

23.1 Introduction

313

(1)

23.2 Protection Via Intumescence

314

(1)

23.2.1 Intumescent Formulations

315

(1)

23.3 Synergistic Agents

315

(1)

23.4 Oil Cracking Catalyst

315

(2)

23.4.1 The FCC Process and Catalyst - Basic Concepts

316

(1)

23.4.2 Chemical Composition and Physical Properties of the Spent FCC Catalyst

316

(1)

23.5 Effect of the Catalyst on Fire Performance of Intumescent Formulations: Are the Additives in Synergy?

317

(7)

23.5.1 Effect of Catalyst Loading

318

(1)

23.5.2 Effect of the Catalyst's Particle Size

319

(1)

23.5.3 Effect of the Catalyst's Components on Flame Retardancy

319

(2)

23.5.4 Spent Catalyst and the Intumescent Layer

321

(3)

23.6 Conclusion

324

(1)

23.7 Acknowledgements

324

(1)

23.8 References

324

(3)

Chapter 24 Zinc Borates as Synergists for Flame Retarded Polymers (Invited Paper)

327

(9)

S. Bourbigot, M. Le Bras and S. Duquesne

24.1 Introduction

327

(1)

24.2 Zinc Borates in Eva-Metal Hydroxides Systems

328

(4)

24.3 Zinc Borates in PP-Based Intumescent Systems

332

(2)

24.4 Conclusions

334

(1)

24.5 References

334

(2)

Chapter 25 Fire Retardancy of Engineering Polymer Composites

336

(11)

P. Anna, S. Matkó, G. Marosi, G. Nagy, X. Alméras and M. Le Bras

25.1 Introduction

336

(1)

25.2 Experimental

337

(1)

25.2.1 Components of Polypropylene Compounds

337

(1)

25.2.2 Components of 3P Composites

337

(1)

25.2.3 Compounding of Thermoplastic Composites

337

(1)

25.3 Results and Discussion

338

(7)

25.3.1 Intumescent PP Compounds Containing PA 6 Charring Component and Talc as Melt Rheology Controller

338

(3)

25.3.2 Intumescent PP Compounds Containing PA 6 Charring Component and Nano-Clay as Melt Rheology Controller

341

(1)

25.3.3 Flame Retarded and Basalt Fibre Reinforced Thermosetting Polymer (3P) Composites

342

(3)

25.4 Conclusion

345

(1)

25.5 Acknowledgement

345

(1)

25.6 References

345

(2)

Chapter 26 Flame Retardant Mechanisms Facilitating Safety in Transportation

347

(16)

G. Marosi, S. Keszei, A. Márton, A. Szép, M. Le Bras, R. Delobel and P. Hornsby

26.1 Introduction

347

(3)

26.2 Experimental

350

(1)

26.2.1 Materials

350

(1)

26.2.2 Methods

351

(1)

26.3 Results and Discussion

351

(7)

26.3.1 Development of Nanocomposites for Forming Internal Panels

351

(2)

26.3.2 New Mechanisms for Delivering FR Components to the Surface

353

(3)

26.3.3 Development of Flame Retarded Noise Insulating Sheets

356

(2)

26.4 Conclusions

358

(1)

26.5 Acknowledgement

359

(1)

26.6 References

359

(4)

Effect of the Addition of Mineral Fillers and Additives on the Toxicity of Fire Effluents from Polymers

Chapter 27 Comparison of the Degradation Products of Polyurethane and Polyurethane-Organophilic Clay Nanocomposite - A Toxicological Approach (Invited Paper)

363

(9)

G.E. Zaikov, S.M. Lomakin and R.A. Sheptalin

27.1 Ecological Issue of Isocyanates and Pyrolysis of Polyurethane Nanocomposite

363

(1)

27.2 Occupational Exposure

364

(1)

27.3 Health Effects

365

(5)

27.3.1 GC-MS Pyrolysis

365

(5)

27.4 Conclusion

370

(1)

27.5 References

370

(2)

Chapter 28 Mechanisms of Smoke and CO Suppression from EVA Composites

372

(14)

T.R. Hull, C.L. Wills, T. Artingstall, D. Price and G.J. Milnes

28.1 Introduction

372

(4)

28.2 Experimental

376

(1)

28.2.1 Materials

376

(1)

28.2.2 Burning Behaviour

376

(1)

28.3 Results

377

(5)

28.3.1 Correlation of Physical Fire Models

377

(5)

28.3.2 Smoke

382

(1)

28.4 Conclusions

382

(2)

28.5 Acknowledgements

384

(1)

28.6 References

384

(2)

Chapter 29 Products of Incomplete Combustion from Fire Studies in the Purser Furnace

386

(13)

C.L. Wills, J. Arotsky, T.R. Hull, D. Price, D.A. Purser and J. Purser

29.1 Introduction

386

(1)

29.2 Experimental

387

(2)

29.2.1 Materials

387

(1)

29.2.2 Apparatus

387

(2)

29.2.3 Secondary Oxidiser

389

(1)

29.3 Results

389

(5)

29.3.1 Mass Loss

389

(1)

29.3.2 Effluent Oxygen

390

(1)

29.3.3 Carbon Dioxide

390

(1)

29.3.4 CO2/CO Ratio

391

(1)

29.3.5 Secondary Oxidiser

392

(1)

29.3.6 CO Yield

393

(1)

29.3.7 Smoke

394

(1)

29.4 Discussion

394

(3)

29.5 Conclusions

397

(1)

29.6 Acknowledgements

397

(1)

29.7 References

397

(2)

Chapter 30 Improved and Cost-efficient Brominated Fire Retardant Systems for Plastics and Textiles by Reducing or Eliminating Antimony Trioxide

399

(13)

R. Borms, R. Wilmer, M. Peled, N. Kornberg, R. Mazor, Y. Bar Yaakov, J. Scheinert and P. Georlette

30.1 Introduction

399

(1)

30.2 Polypropylene (PP)

399

(2)

30.3 High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS)

401

(2)

30.4 Styrenic Copolymers

403

(1)

30.5 Polyamide

404

(2)

30.6 Polycarbonate (PC) and its Alloys with ABS

406

(2)

30.7 Textile Back-Coating

408

(1)

30.8 Conclusion

409

(1)

30.9 Acknowledgement

409

(1)

30.10 References

409

(3)

Subject Index

412

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Fire Retardancy of Polymers

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials