Critical Component Wear in Heavy Duty Engines

, by Lakshminarayanan, P. A.; Nayak, Nagaraj S.

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ISBN: 9780470828823 | 047082882X
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 10/4/2011

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Shows engineers how to prevent wear and dramatically increase the lifespan of key components The critical parts of a heavy duty engine are designed for infinite life without mechanical fatigue failure. Yet the life of an engine is in reality determined by wear of the critical parts. Even if an engine is reconditioned at the end of normal wear life, abnormal wear takes place either due to special working conditions or increased loading. Understanding abnormal and normal wear enables the engineer to control the external conditions leading to premature wear, or to design the critical parts that have longer life and hence lower costs. The literature on wear phenomenon related to engines is scattered in numerous periodicals and books. For the first time, the tribology aspects of different critical engine components are written in one book. Lakshminarayanan covers tribology of critical components, namely, the liner, piston, rings, valve, valve train and bearings with methods to identify and quantify wear. Presents real world case studies with suitable mathematical models for earth movers, power generation, and sea going vessels Includes material from researchers at Chevron (USA), Tekniker (Spain), IP Rings (India), Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd (India) Wear simulations and calculations included in the appendices Instructor presentations slides with book figures available from the companion site

List of Contributors xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgements xxi
Overture	p. 1
Wear in the Heavy Duty Engine	p. 3
Introduction	p. 3
Engine Life	p. 3
Wear in Engines	p. 4
Natural Aging	p. 4
General Wear Model	p. 5
Wear of Engine Bearings	p. 5
Wear of Piston Rings and Liners	p. 6
Wear of Valves and Valve Guides	p. 6
Reduction in Wear Life of Critical Parts Due to Contaminants in Oil	p. 6
Oil Analysis	p. 7
Oils for New Generation Engines with Longer Drain Intervals	p. 8
Engine Oil Developments and Trends	p. 8
Shift in Engine Oil Technology	p. 9
Filters	p. 9
Air Filter	p. 9
Oil Filter	p. 10
Water Filter	p. 10
Fuel Filter	p. 10
Types of Wear of Critical Parts in a Highly Loaded Diesel Engine	p. 10
Adhesive Wear	p. 10
Abrasive Wear	p. 11
Fretting Wear	p. 11
Corrosive Wear	p. 11
References	p. 11
Engine Size and Life	p. 13
Introduction	p. 13
Engine Life	p. 13
Factors on Which Life is Dependent	p. 14
Friction Force and Power	p. 14
Mechanical Efficiency	p. 14
Friction	p. 15
Similarity Studies	p. 15
Characteristic Size of an Engine	p. 15
Velocity	p. 16
Oil Film Thickness	p. 17
Velocity Gradient	p. 18
Friction Force or Power	p. 18
Indicated Power and Efficiency	p. 18
Archard's Law of Wear	p. 20
Wear Life of Engines	p. 20
Wear Life	p. 20
Nondimensional Wear Depth Achieved During Lifetime	p. 21
Summary	p. 23
Engine Parameters, Mechanical Efficiency and Life	p. 25
Hardness and Fatigue Limits of Different Copper-Lead-Tin (Cu-Pb-Sn) Bearings	p. 26
Hardness and Fatigue Limits of Different Aluminium-Tin (Al-Sn) Bearings	p. 28
References	p. 29
Valve Train Components	p. 31
Inlet Valve Seat Wear in High bmep Diesel Engines	p. 33
Introduction	p. 33
Valve Seat Wear	p. 34
Design Aspects to Reduce Valve Seat Wear Life	p. 34
Shear Strain and Wear due to Relative Displacement	p. 35
Wear Model	p. 35
Wear Rate	p. 36
Finite Element Analysis	p. 37
Experiments, Results and Discussions	p. 38
Valve and Seat Insert of Existing Design	p. 39
Improved Valve and Seat Insert	p. 39
Summary	p. 45
Design Rule for Inlet Valve Seat Wear in High bmep Engines	p. 45
References	p. 45
Wear of the Cam Follower and Rocker Toe	p. 47
Introduction	p. 47
Wear of Cam Follower Surfaces	p. 48
Wear Mechanism of the Cam Follower	p. 48
Typical Modes of Wear	p. 50
Experiments on Cam Follower Wear	p. 51
Follower Measurement	p. 51
Dynamics of the Valve Train System of the Pushrod Type	p. 52
Elastohydrodynamic and Transition of Boundary Lubrication	p. 52
Cam and Follower Dynamics	p. 53
Wear Model	p. 55
Wear Coefficient	p. 55
Valve Train Dynamics and Stress on the Follower	p. 55
Wear Depth	p. 61
Parametric Study	p. 64
Engine Speed	p. 64
Oil Film Thickness	p. 64
Wear of the Cast Iron Rocker Toe	p. 64
Summary	p. 66
References	p. 66
Liner, Piston And Piston Rings	p. 69
Liner Wear: Wear of Roughness Peaks in Sparse Contact	p. 71
Introduction	p. 71
Surface Texture of Liners and Rings	p. 72
Surface Finish	p. 72
Honing of Liners	p. 72
Surface Finish Parameters	p. 72
Bearing Area Curve	p. 74
Representation of Bearing Area Curve of Normally Honed Surface or Surfaces with Peaked Roughness	p. 75
Wear of Liner Surfaces	p. 76
Asperities	p. 76
Radius of the Asperity in the Transverse Direction	p. 76
Radius in the Longitudinal Direction	p. 77
Sparse Contact	p. 77
Contact Pressures	p. 79
Friction	p. 79
Approach	p. 80
Detachment of Asperities	p. 80
Wear Model	p. 81
Normally Honed Liner with Peaked Roughness	p. 81
Normal Surface Roughness	p. 81
Fatigue Loading of Asperities	p. 81
Wear Rate	p. 82
Plateau Honed and Other Liners not Normally Honed	p. 83
Liner Wear Model for Wear of Roughness Peaks in Sparse Contact	p. 85
Parametric Studies	p. 86
Comparison with Archard's Model	p. 88
Discussions on Wear of Liner Roughness Peaks due to Sparse Contact	p. 89
Summary	p. 92
Sample Calculation of the Wear of a Rough Plateau Honed Liner	p. 93
References	p. 93
Generalized Boundary Conditions for Designing Diesel Pistons	p. 95
Introduction	p. 95
Temperature Distribution and Form of the Piston	p. 96
Top Land	p. 96
Skirt	p. 96
Experimental Mapping of Temperature Field in the Piston	p. 97
Heat Transfer in Pistons	p. 98
Metal Slab	p. 98
Calculation of Piston Shape	p. 98
Popular Methods Used Before Finite Element Analysis	p. 99
Calculation by Finite Element Method	p. 101
Experimental Validation	p. 103
Summary	p. 108
References	p. 109
Bore Polishing Wear in Diesel Engine Cylinders	p. 111
Introduction	p. 111
Wear Phenomenon for Liner Surfaces	p. 112
Bore Polishing	p. 112
Bore Polishing Mechanism	p. 113
Carbon Deposit Build Up on the Piston Top Land	p. 113
Quality of Fuel and Oil	p. 113
Piston Growth by Finite Element Method	p. 113
Piston Secondary Movement	p. 114
Simulation Program	p. 115
Wear Model	p. 115
Contact Pressures	p. 115
Wear Rate	p. 116
Calculation Methodology and Study of Bore Polishing Wear	p. 116
Finite Element Analysis	p. 116
Simulation	p. 117
Case Study on Bore Polishing Wear in Diesel Engine Cylinders	p. 118
Visual Observations	p. 118
Liner Measurements	p. 119
Results of Finite Element Analysis	p. 119
Piston Motion	p. 121
Wear Profile	p. 123
Engine Oil Consumption	p. 125
Methods Used to Reduce Liner Wear	p. 125
Summary	p. 127
References	p. 127
Abrasive Wear of Piston Grooves in Highly Loaded Diesel Engines	p. 129
Introduction	p. 129
Wear Phenomenon in Piston Grooves	p. 130
Abrasive Wear	p. 130
Wear Mechanism	p. 130
Wear Model	p. 132
Real Contact Pressure	p. 132
Approach	p. 132
Wear Rate	p. 132
Experimental Validation	p. 134
Validation of the Model	p. 134
Wear Measurement	p. 135
Estimation of Wear Using Sarkar's Model	p. 137
Parametric Study	p. 138
Summary	p. 139
References	p. 140
Abrasive Wear of Liners and Piston Rings	p. 141
Introduction	p. 141
Wear of Liner and Ring Surfaces	p. 141
Design Parameters	p. 143
Piston and Rings Assembly	p. 143
Abrasive Wear	p. 143
Sources of Abrasives	p. 144
Study of Abrasive Wear on Off-highway Engines	p. 144
Abrasive Wear of Rings	p. 144
Abrasive Wear of Piston Pin and Liners	p. 144
Accelerated Abrasive Wear Test on an Engine to Simulate Operation in the Field	p. 146
Winnowing Effect	p. 149
Scanning Electron Microscopy of Abrasive Wear	p. 150
Critical Dosage of Sand and Life of Piston-Ring-Liner Assembly	p. 150
Simulation of Engine Life	p. 151
Summary	p. 152
References	p. 153
Corrosive Wear	p. 155
Introduction	p. 155
Operating Parameters	p. 155
Corrosive Wear	p. 155
Corrosive Wear Study on Off-road Application Engines	p. 156
Accelerated Corrosive Wear Test	p. 156
Wear Related to Coolants in an Engine	p. 161
Under-cooling of Liners by Design	p. 161
Coolant Related Wear	p. 161
Summary	p. 165
References	p. 165
Tribological Tests to Simulate Wear on Piston Rings	p. 167
Introduction	p. 167
Friction and Wear Tests	p. 168
Testing Friction and Wear of the Tribo-System Piston Ring and Cylinder Liner Outside of Engines	p. 168
Test Procedures Assigned to the High Frequency, Linear Oscillating Test Machine	p. 170
Load, Friction and Wear Tests	p. 172
EP Test	p. 172
Scuffing Test	p. 172
Reagents and Materials	p. 172
Test Results	p. 175
Selection of Coatings for Piston Rings	p. 175
Scuffing Tribological Test	p. 178
Hot Endurance Test	p. 179
Selection of Lubricants	p. 184
High Performance Bio-lubricants and Tribo-reactive Materials for Clean Automotive Applications	p. 185
Synthetic Esters	p. 185
Polyalkyleneglycols	p. 185
Tribo-Active Materials	p. 190
Thematic 'Piston Rings'	p. 190
EP Tribological Tests	p. 192
Piston Ring Cylinder Liner Simulation	p. 192
Acknowledgements	p. 194
References	p. 194
Engine Bearings	p. 197
Friction and Wear in Engine Bearings	p. 199
Introduction	p. 199
Engine Bearing Materials	p. 202
Babbitt or White Metal	p. 202
Copper-Lead Alloys	p. 203
Aluminium-based Materials	p. 204
Functions of Engine Bearing Layers	p. 205
Types of Overlays/Coatings in Engine Bearings	p. 206
Lead-based Overlays	p. 208
Tin-based Overlays	p. 208
Sputter Bearing Overlays	p. 208
Polymer-based Overlays	p. 208
Coatings for Engine Bearings	p. 209
Relevance of Lubrication Regimes in the Study of Bearing Wear	p. 210
Boundary Lubrication	p. 212
Mixed Film Lubrication	p. 215
Fluid Film Lubrication	p. 216
Theoretical Friction and Wear in Bearings	p. 217
Friction	p. 217
Wear	p. 218
Mechanisms of Wear	p. 219
Adhesive Wear	p. 220
Abrasive Wear	p. 223
Erosive Wear	p. 230
Requirements of Engine Bearing Materials	p. 234
Characterization Tests for Wear Behaviour of Engine Bearings	p. 238
Fatigue Strength	p. 239
Pin-on-disk Test	p. 239
Scratch Test for Bond Strength	p. 241
Summary	p. 251
References	p. 252
Lubricating Oils For Modern Engines	p. 253
Heavy Duty Diesel Engine Oils, Emission Strategies and their Effect on Engine Oils	p. 255
Introduction	p. 255
What Drives the Changes in Diesel Engine Oil Specifications?	p. 256
Role of the Government	p. 256
OEMs' Role	p. 257
The Consumer's Role	p. 258
Engine Oil Requirements	p. 258
Overview and What an Engine Oil Must Do	p. 258
Components of Engine Oil Performance	p. 265
Viscosity	p. 265
Protection against Wear, Deposits and Oil Deterioration	p. 268
How Engine Oil Performance Standards are Developed	p. 268
Phase 1: Category Request and Evaluation (API, 2011a, pp. 36, 37)	p. 269
Phase 2: Category Development (API, 2011a, pp. 41, 42)	p. 271
Phase 3: Category Implementation (API, 2011a, p. 45)	p. 273
API Licensing Process	p. 275
API Service Classifications	p. 276
ACEA Specifications	p. 276
Current E Sequences	p. 278
OEM Specifications	p. 279
Why Some API Service Classifications Become Obsolete	p. 279
Engine Oil Composition	p. 280
Base Oils	p. 280
Refining Processes Used to Produce Lubricating Oil Base Stocks	p. 281
Synthetic Base Oils	p. 285
Synthetic Blends	p. 286
API Base Oil Categories	p. 286
Specific Engine Oil Additive Chemistry	p. 290
Detergent-Dispersant Additives	p. 290
Anti-Wear Additives	p. 294
Friction Modifiers	p. 295
Rust and Corrosion Inhibitors	p. 296
Oxidation Inhibitors (Antioxidants)	p. 296
Viscosity Index Improvers	p. 298
Pour Point Depressants	p. 300
Foam Inhibitors	p. 301
Maintaining and Changing Engine Oils	p. 302
Oil Change Intervals	p. 303
Used Engine Oil Analysis	p. 303
Diesel Engine Oil Trends	p. 306
Engine Design Technologies and Strategies Used to Control Emissions	p. 306
High Pressure Common Rail (HPCR) Fuel System	p. 309
Combustion Optimization	p. 310
Advanced Turbocharging	p. 312
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)	p. 313
Advanced Combustion Emissions Reduction Technology	p. 314
Crankcase Ventilation	p. 315
Exhaust After-Treatment	p. 315
On-Board Diagnostics (OBD)	p. 324
Impact of Emission Strategies on Engine Oils	p. 324
Impact of Cooled EGR on Engine Oil	p. 325
Effects of Post-Injection on Engine Oils	p. 327
How Have Engine Oils Changed to Cope with the Demands of Low Emissions?	p. 328
Most Prevalent API Specifications Found In Use	p. 329
API CH-4	p. 329
API CI-4	p. 330
API CI-4 Plus	p. 331
API CJ-4	p. 333
Paradigm Shift in Engine Oil Technology	p. 336
Backward Compatibility and Engine Tests	p. 337
New Engine Sequence Tests	p. 338
Previous Engine Oil Sequence Tests	p. 343
Differences Between CJ-4 and Previous Categories and Benefits of Using CJ-4 Engine Oils	p. 347
Future Engine Oil Developments	p. 348
Summary	p. 352
References	p. 353
Fuel Injection Equipment	p. 355
Wear of Fuel Injection Equipment	p. 357
Introduction	p. 357
Wear due to Diesel Fuel Quality	p. 357
Lubricity of Mineral Diesel Fuel	p. 357
Oxygen Content of Biodiesel	p. 361
Wear due to Abrasive Dust in Fuel	p. 361
Wear of Injector Nozzle due to Heat and Dust	p. 361
Fuel Filters	p. 364
Wear due to Water in Fuel	p. 365
Corrosive Wear due to Water Ingress	p. 365
Use of Emulsified Water for Reducing Nitric Oxides in Large Engines	p. 365
Microbiological Contamination of Fuel Systems	p. 366
Water Separators	p. 367
Summary	p. 367
References	p. 367
Heavy Fuel Engines	p. 369
Wear with Heavy Fuel Oil Operation	p. 371
Introduction	p. 371
Fuel Treatment: Filtration and Homogenization	p. 373
Water and Chlorine	p. 374
Fuel Injection Equipment	p. 374
Viscosity, Carbon Residue and Dust	p. 374
Fuel Injection Equipment	p. 374
Deposit Build Up on Top Land and Anti-polishing Ring for Reducing the Wear of Liner, Rings and Piston	p. 375
High Sulfur in Fuel	p. 377
Formation of Sulfuric Acid	p. 377
Mechanism of Corrosive Attack by Sulfuric Acid	p. 377
Control of Corrosion by Basicity and Oil Consumption	p. 378
Control of Sulfur Corrosion by Maintaining Cooling Water Temperature High	p. 379
Low Sulfur in Fuel	p. 380
Lubricity	p. 380
Lack of Formation of Oil Pockets on the Liner Bore	p. 381
Sudden Severe Wear of Liner and Rings	p. 382
Catalyst Fines	p. 383
High Temperature Corrosion	p. 383
Turbocharger	p. 385
Exhaust Valves	p. 385
Wear Specific to Four-stroke HFO Engines	p. 388
Wear of Bearings	p. 388
Inlet Valve	p. 391
Corrosive Wear of Valve Tips	p. 391
New Engines Compliant to Maritime Emission Standards	p. 391
Steps to Satisfy Emission Standards	p. 391
Wear Life of an HFO Engine	p. 393
Summary	p. 393
References	p. 394
Filters	p. 397
Air and Oil Filtration and Its Impact on Oil Life and Engine Wear Life	p. 399
Introduction	p. 399
Mechanisms of Filtration	p. 400
Classification of Filtration	p. 400
Classification by Filter Media	p. 401
Classification by Direction of Flow	p. 402
Classification by Filter Size	p. 402
Filter Rating	p. 403
Absolute Rating	p. 403
Nominal Rating	p. 403
Mean Filter Rating	p. 403
b Ratio	p. 403
Efficiency	p. 404
Filter Selection	p. 404
Introduction to Different Filters in the Engine	p. 405
Air Filters	p. 405
Cleaning Air Filters and Impact on Wear Life	p. 409
Oil Filters and Impact on Oil and Engine Life	p. 409
Oil Performance and Life	p. 410
Oil Stress	p. 411
Application of the Concept of Oil Stress	p. 413
Advances in Oil Filter Technology	p. 413
Engine Wear	p. 413
Method to Predict Wear of Critical Engine Components	p. 415
Full Flow Oil Filters	p. 415
Bypass Filters	p. 417
Centrifugal Filters	p. 418
Summary 419 Appendix 16.A Filter Tests and Test Standards	p. 419
References	p. 419
Index	p. 421
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Critical Component Wear in Heavy Duty Engines

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