Advanced Signal Integrity for High-Speed Digital Designs

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ISBN: 9780470192351 | 0470192356
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 3/16/2009

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Signal integrity has become the key issue in most high-performance digital designs. Now, from the foremost experts in the field, this book leverages theory and techniques from non-related fields such as applied physics, communications, and microwave engineering and applies them to the field of high-speed digital design. This approach creates an optimal combination of theory and practice that is meaningful to practicing engineers and graduate students alike.

Preface	p. xv
Introduction: The Importance of Signal Integrity	p. 1
Computing Power: Past and Future	p. 1
The Problem	p. 4
The Basics	p. 5
A New Realm of Bus Design	p. 7
Scope of the Book	p. 7
Summary	p. 8
References	p. 8
Electromagnetic Fundamentals for Signal Integrity	p. 9
Maxwell's Equations	p. 10
Common Vector Operators	p. 13
Vector	p. 13
Dot Product	p. 13
Cross Product	p. 14
Vector and Scalar Fields	p. 15
Flux	p. 15
Gradient	p. 18
Divergence	p. 18
Curl	p. 20
Wave Propagation	p. 23
Wave Equation	p. 23
Relation Between E and H and the Transverse Electromagnetic Mode	p. 25
Time-Harmonic Fields	p. 27
Propagation of Time-Harmonic Plane Waves	p. 28
Electrostatics	p. 32
Electrostatic Scalar Potential in Terms of an Electric Field	p. 36
Energy in an Electric Field	p. 37
Capacitance	p. 40
Energy Stored in a Capacitor	p. 41
Magnetostatics	p. 42
Magnetic Vector Potential	p. 46
Inductance	p. 48
Energy in a Magnetic Field	p. 51
Power Flow and the Poynting Vector	p. 53
Time-Averaged Values	p. 56
Reflections of Electromagnetic Waves	p. 57
Plane Wave Incident on a Perfect Conductor	p. 57
Plane Wave Incident on a Lossless Dielectric	p. 60
References	p. 62
Problems	p. 62
Ideal Transmission-Line Fundamentals	p. 65
Transmission-Line Structures	p. 66
Wave Propagation on Loss-Free Transmission Lines	p. 67
Electric and Magnetic Fields on a Transmission Line	p. 68
Telegrapher's Equations	p. 73
Equivalent Circuit for the Loss-Free Case	p. 76
Wave Equation in Terms of LC	p. 80
Transmission-Line Properties	p. 82
Transmission-Line Phase Velocity	p. 82
Transmission-Line Characteristic Impedance	p. 82
Effective Dielectric Permittivity	p. 83
Simple Formulas for Calculating the Characteristic Impedance	p. 85
Validity of the TEM Approximation	p. 86
Transmission-Line Parameters for the Loss-Free Case	p. 90
Laplace and Poisson Equations	p. 91
Transmission-Line Parameters for a Coaxial Line	p. 91
Transmission-Line Parameters for a Microstrip	p. 94
Charge Distribution Near a Conductor Edge	p. 100
Charge Distribution and Transmission-Line Parameters	p. 104
Field Mapping	p. 107
Transmission-Line Reflections	p. 113
Transmission-Line Reflection and Transmission Coefficient	p. 113
Launching an Initial Wave	p. 116
Multiple Reflections	p. 116
Lattice Diagrams and Over- or Underdriven Transmission Lines	p. 118
Lattice Diagrams for Nonideal Topologies	p. 121
Effect of Rise and Fall Times on Reflections	p. 129
Reflections from Reactive Loads	p. 129
Time-Domain Reflectometry	p. 134
Measuring the Characteristic Impedance and Delay of a Transmission Line	p. 134
Measuring Inductance and Capacitance of Reactive Structures	p. 137
Understanding the TDR Profile	p. 140
References	p. 140
Problems	p. 141
Crosstalk	p. 145
Mutual Inductance and Capacitance	p. 146
Mutual Inductance	p. 147
Mutual Capacitance	p. 149
Field Solvers	p. 152
Coupled Wave Equations	p. 153
Wave Equation Revisited	p. 153
Coupled Wave Equations	p. 155
Coupled Line Analysis	p. 157
Impedance and Velocity	p. 157
Coupled Noise	p. 165
Modal Analysis	p. 177
Modal Decomposition	p. 178
Modal Impedance and Velocity	p. 180
Reconstructing the Signal	p. 180
Modal Analysis	p. 181
Modal Analysis of Lossy Lines	p. 192
Crosstalk Minimization	p. 193
Summary	p. 194
References	p. 195
Problems	p. 195
Nonideal Conductor Models	p. 201
Signals Propagating in Unbounded Conductive Media	p. 202
Propagation Constant for Conductive Media	p. 202
Skin Depth	p. 204
Classic Conductor Model for Transmission Lines	p. 205
Dc Losses in Conductors	p. 206
Frequency-Dependent Resistance in Conductors	p. 207
Frequency-Dependent Inductance	p. 213
Power Loss in a Smooth Conductor	p. 218
Surface Roughness	p. 222
Hammerstad Model	p. 223
Hemispherical Model	p. 228
Huray Model	p. 237
Conclusions	p. 243
Transmission-Line Parameters for Nonideal Conductors	p. 244
Equivalent Circuit, Impedance, and Propagation Constant	p. 244
Telegrapher's Equations for a Real Conductor and a Perfect Dielectric	p. 246
References	p. 247
Problems	p. 247
Electrical Properties of Dielectrics	p. 249
Polarization of Dielectrics	p. 250
Electronic Polarization	p. 250
Orientational (Dipole) Polarization	p. 253
Ionic (Molecular) Polarization	p. 253
Relative Permittivity	p. 254
Classification of Dielectric Materials	p. 256
Frequency-Dependent Dielectric Behavior	p. 256
Dc Dielectric Losses	p. 257
Frequency-Dependent Dielectric Model: Single Pole	p. 257
Anomalous Dispersion	p. 261
Frequency-Dependent Dielectric Model: Multipole	p. 262
Infinite-Pole Model	p. 266
Properties of a Physical Dielectric Model	p. 269
Relationship Between e' and e"	p. 269
Mathematical Limits	p. 271
Fiber-Weave Effect	p. 274
Physical Structure of an FR4 Dielectric and Dielectric Constant Variation	p. 275
Mitigation	p. 276
Modeling the Fiber-Weave Effect	p. 277
Environmental Variation in Dielectric Behavior	p. 279
Environmental Effects on Transmission-Line Performance	p. 281
Mitigation	p. 283
Modeling the Effect of Relative Humidity on an FR4 Dielectric	p. 284
Transmission-Line Parameters for Lossy Dielectrics and Realistic Conductors	p. 285
Equivalent Circuit, Impedance, and Propagation Constant	p. 285
Telegrapher's Equations for Realistic Conductors and Lossy Dielectrics	p. 291
References	p. 292
Problems	p. 292
Differential Signaling	p. 297
Removal of Common-Mode Noise	p. 299
Differential Crosstalk	p. 300
Virtual Reference Plane	p. 302
Propagation of Modal Voltages	p. 303
Common Terminology	p. 304
Drawbacks of Differential Signaling	p. 305
Mode Conversion	p. 305
Fiber-Weave Effect	p. 310
Reference	p. 313
Problems	p. 313
Mathematical Requirements for Physical Channels	p. 315
Frequency-Domain Effects in Time-Domain Simulations	p. 316
Linear and Time Invariance	p. 316
Time- and Frequency-Domain Equivalencies	p. 317
Frequency Spectrum of a Digital Pulse	p. 321
System Response	p. 324
Single-Bit (Pulse) Response	p. 327
Requirements for a Physical Channel	p. 331
Causality	p. 331
Passivity	p. 340
Stability	p. 343
References	p. 345
Problems	p. 345
Network Analysis for Digital Engineers	p. 347
High-Frequency Voltage and Current Waves	p. 349
Input Reflection into a Terminated Network	p. 349
Input Impedance	p. 353
Network Theory	p. 354
Impedance Matrix	p. 355
Scattering Matrix	p. 358
ABCD Parameters	p. 382
Cascading S-Parameters	p. 390
Calibration and Deembedding	p. 395
Changing the Reference Impedance	p. 399
Multimode S-Parameters	p. 400
Properties of Physical S-Parameters	p. 406
Passivity	p. 406
Reality	p. 408
Causality	p. 408
Subjective Examination of S-Parameters	p. 410
References	p. 413
Problems	p. 413
Topics in High-Speed Channel Modeling	p. 417
Creating a Physical Transmission-Line Model	p. 418
Tabular Approach	p. 418
Generating a Tabular Dielectric Model	p. 419
Generating a Tabular Conductor Model	p. 420
NonIdeal Return Paths	p. 422
Path of Least Impedance	p. 422
Transmission Line Routed Over a Gap in the Reference Plane	p. 423
Summary	p. 434
Vias	p. 434
Via Resonance	p. 434
Plane Radiation Losses	p. 437
Parallel-Plate Waveguide	p. 439
References	p. 441
Problems	p. 442
I/O Circuits and Models	p. 443
I/O Design Considerations	p. 444
Push-Pull Transmitters	p. 446
Operation	p. 446
Linear Models	p. 448
Nonlinear Models	p. 453
Advanced Design Considerations	p. 455
CMOS receivers	p. 459
Operation	p. 459
Modeling	p. 460
Advanced Design Considerations	p. 460
ESD Protection Circuits	p. 460
Operation	p. 461
Modeling	p. 461
Advanced Design Considerations	p. 463
On-Chip Termination	p. 463
Operation	p. 463
Modeling	p. 463
Advanced Design Considerations	p. 464
Bergeron Diagrams	p. 465
Theory and Method	p. 470
Limitations	p. 474
Open-Drain Transmitters	p. 474
Operation	p. 474
Modeling	p. 476
Advanced Design Considerations	p. 476
Differential Current-Mode Transmitters	p. 479
Operation	p. 479
Modeling	p. 480
Advanced Design Considerations	p. 480
Low-Swing and Differential Receivers	p. 481
Operation	p. 481
Modeling	p. 482
Advanced Design Considerations	p. 483
IBIS Models	p. 483
Model Structure and Development Process	p. 483
Generating Model Data	p. 485
Differential I/O Models	p. 488
Example of an IBIS File	p. 490
Summary	p. 492
References	p. 492
Problems	p. 494
Equalization	p. 499
Analysis and Design Background	p. 500
Maximum Data Transfer Capacity	p. 500
Linear Time-Invariant Systems	p. 502
Ideal Versus Practical Interconnects	p. 506
Equalization Overview	p. 511
Continuous-Time Linear Equalizers	p. 513
Passive CTLEs	p. 514
Active CTLEs	p. 521
Discrete Linear Equalizers	p. 522
Transmitter Equalization	p. 525
Coefficient Selection	p. 530
Receiver Equalization	p. 535
Nonidealities in DLEs	p. 536
Adaptive Equalization	p. 536
Decision Feedback Equalization	p. 540
Summary	p. 542
References	p. 545
Problems	p. 546
Modeling and Budgeting of Timing Jitter and Noise	p. 549
Eye Diagram	p. 550
Bit Error Rate	p. 552
Worst-Case Analysis	p. 552
Bit Error Rate Analysis	p. 555
Jitter Sources and Budgets	p. 560
Jitter Types and Sources	p. 561
System Jitter Budgets	p. 568
Noise Sources and Budgets	p. 572
Noise Sources	p. 572
Noise Budgets	p. 579
Peak Distortion Analysis Methods	p. 583
Superposition and the Pulse Response	p. 583
Worst-Case Bit Patterns and Data Eyes	p. 585
Peak Distortion Analysis Including Crosstalk	p. 594
Limitations	p. 598
Summary	p. 599
References	p. 599
Problems	p. 600
System Analysis Using Response Surface Modeling	p. 605
Model Design Considerations	p. 606
Case Study: 10-Gb/s Differential PCB Interface	p. 607
RSM Construction by Least Squares Fitting	p. 607
Measures of Fit	p. 615
Residuals	p. 615
Fit Coefficients	p. 616
Significance Testing	p. 618
Model Significance: The F-Test	p. 618
Parameter Significance: Individual t-Tests	p. 619
Confidence Intervals	p. 621
Sensitivity Analysis and Design Optimization	p. 623
Defect Rate Prediction Using Monte Carlo Simulation	p. 628
Additional RSM Considerations	p. 633
Summary	p. 633
References	p. 634
Problems	p. 635
Useful Formulas, Identities, Units, and Constants	p. 637
Four-Port Conversions Between T- and S-Parameters	p. 641
Critical Values of the F-Statistic	p. 645
Critical Values of the T-Statistic	p. 647
Causal Relationship Between Skin Effect Resistance and Internal Inductance for Rough Conductors	p. 649
Spice Level 3 Model for 0.25 mm MOSIS Process	p. 653
Index	p. 655
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Advanced Signal Integrity for High-Speed Digital Designs

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