Advances in Energy Storage Latest Developments from R&D to the Market

An accessible reference describing the newest advancements in energy storage technologies

Advances in Energy Storage: Latest Developments from R&D to the Market is a comprehensive exploration of a wide range of energy storage technologies that use the fundamental energy conversion method. The distinguished contributors discuss the foundational principles, common materials, construction, device operation, and system level performance of the technology, as well as real-world applications. The book also includes examinations of the industry standards that apply to energy storage technologies and the commercial status of various kinds of energy storage.

The book has been written by accomplished leaders in the field and address electrochemical, chemical, thermal, mechanical, and superconducting magnetic energy storage. They offer insightful treatments of relevant policy instruments and posit likely future advancements that will support and stimulate energy storage.

Advances in Energy Storage also includes:

• A thorough introduction to electrochemical, electrical, and super magnetic energy storage, including foundational electrochemistry concepts used in modern power sources
• A comprehensive exploration of mechanical energy storage and pumped hydro energy storage
• Practical discussions of compressed air energy storage and flywheels, including the geology, history, and development of air energy storage
• In-depth examinations of thermal energy storage, including new material developments for latent and thermochemical heat storage

Perfect for practicing electrical engineers, mechanical engineers, and materials scientists, Advances in Energy Storage: Latest Developments from R&D to the Market is also an indispensable reference for researchers and graduate students in these fields.

Andreas Hauer isHead of division “Energy Storage” of The Bavarian Center for Applied Energy Research. The institute was established to promote energy research as well as education, training, consultation, information and documentation in all fields significant to energy research.

Stephen J. Bauer is a distinguished member of the technical staff at Sandia National Laboratories where he provides thermal, mechanical, hydrologic material experimental/characterization expertise for the Geomechanics Department of Sandia’s Geosciences, Climate and Consequences Programs Center. 

List of Contributors xxi

1 Energy Storage Solutions for Future Energy Systems 1
Andreas Hauer

1.1 The Role of Energy Storage 1

1.2 The Definition of Energy Storage 1

1.3 Technologies for Energy Storage 5

1.4 Applications for Energy Storage 11

Part I Electrochemical, Electrical, and Super Magnetic Energy Storages 15

2 An Introduction to Electrochemistry in Modern Power Sources 17
Frank C. Walsh, Andrew Cruden, and Peter J. Hall

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 Electrode Reactions 17

2.3 Electrochemical Cells 18

2.4 The Case for Electrochemical Power Sources 19

2.5 The Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Cells 20

2.6 The Actual Cell Voltage: Thermodynamic, Electrode Kinetic, and Ohmic Losses 20

2.7 Faraday’s Laws and Charge Capacity 22

2.8 The Performance of Cells: Charge Capacity and Specific Energy Capability 23

2.9 Types of Electrochemical Device for Energy Conversion 23

3 Standalone Batteries for Power Backup and Energy Storage 31
Declan Bryans, Martin R Jiminez, Jennifer M Maxwell, Jon M Mitxelena, David Kerr, and Léonard E A Berlouis

3.1 Introduction 31

3.2 Standalone Battery Technologies 31

3.3 Comparisons 54

3.4 Conclusions 54

4 Environmental Aspects and Recycling of Battery Materials 61
Guangjin Zhao

4.1 Introduction 61

4.2 Classical Batteries 63

4.3 Summary 64

4.4 Future Perspectives 64

4.5 Future Developments 68

5 Supercapacitors for Short-term, High Power Energy Storage 71
Lingbin Kong, Maocheng Liu, Jianyun Cao, Rutao Wang, Weibin Zhang, Kun Yan, Xiaohong Li, and Frank C. Walsh

5.1 Introduction 71

5.2 Electrode Materials 73

5.3 Supercapacitor Devices 80

5.4 Conclusions 88

5.5 Outlook 89

6 Overview of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Technology 99
Jing Shi, Xiao Zhou, Yang Liu, Li Ren, Yuejin Tang, and Shijie Chen

6.1 Introduction 99

6.2 The Principle of SMES 99

6.3 Development Status of SMES 102

6.4 Development Trend of SMES 104

6.5 Research Topics for Developing SMES 107

6.6 Conclusions 109

7 Key Technologies of Superconducting Magnets for SMES 113
Ying Xu, Li Ren, Jing Shi, and Yuejin Tang

7.1 Introduction 113

7.2 The Development of SMES Magnets 116

7.3 Considerations in the Design of SMES Magnets 119

7.4 Current Leads of SMES Magnets 124

7.5 Quench Protection for SMES Magnets 128

7.6 Summary 132

8 Testing Technologies for Developing SMES 135
Jing Shi, Yuxiang Liao, Lihui Zhang, Ying Xu, Li Ren, Jingdong Li, and Yuejin Tang

8.1 Introduction 135

8.2 HTS Tape Property Test Method 135

8.3 Magnet Coils Experimental Methods 138

8.4 SMES Test 140

8.5 Conclusions 147

9 Superconducting Wires and Tapes for SMES 149
Yuejin Tang, Ying Xu, Sinian Yan, Feng Feng, and Guo Yan

9.1 Introduction 149

9.2 A Brief Explanation of Superconductivity 150

9.3 Wires Made from LTc Superconductors 157

9.4 Wires or Tapes Made from HTc Superconductors 158

9.5 Discussion 162

10 Cryogenic Technology 165
Li Ren, Ying Xu, and Yuejin Tang

10.1 Introduction 165

10.2 Cryogens 166

10.3 Cryo-cooler 170

10.4 Cryogenic System 173

10.5 Vacuum Technology 176

10.6 An Evaluation Method for Conduction-cooled SMES Cryogenic Cooling Systems 178

10.7 Case Study 181

11 Control Strategies for Different Application Modes of SMES 187
Jiakun Fang, Wei Yao, Jinyu Wen, and Shijie Cheng

11.1 Overview of the Control Strategies for SMES Applications 187

11.2 Robust Control for SMES in Coordination with Wind Generators 188

11.3 Anti-windup Compensation for SMES-Based Power System Damping Controller 196

11.4 Monitoring and Control Unit of SMES 204

11.5 Conclusion 208

Part II Mechanical Energy Storage and Pumped Hydro Energy Storage 211

12 Overview of Pumped Hydro Resource 213
Pål-Tore Storli

12.1 Pumped Hydro Storage Basic Concepts 213

12.2 Historic Perspective 226

12.3 Worldwide Installed Base 231

12.4 The Future for PHS 231

13 Pumped Storage Machines – Motor Generators 239
Stefanie Kemmer and Thomas Hildinger

13.1 Synchronous Machine Fixed Speed 240

13.2 Doubly fed Induction Machine Adjustable Speed (DFIM) 247

13.3 Synchronous Machine Adjustable Speed (FFIM) 252

14 Pumped Storage Machines – Ternary Units 257
Manfred Sallaberger and Thomas Gaal

14.1 Ternary Units 257

15 Hydro-Mechanical Equipment 273
Claudia Pollak-Reibenwein

15.1 Steel-lined Pressure Conduits 273

15.2 Typical Control and Shut-Off Devices for Pumped Storage Plants 284

16 Pumped Storage Machines - Hydraulic Short-circuit Operation 289
Thomas Gaal and Manfred Sallaberger

16.1 Hydraulic Short-circuit Operation 289

Part III Mechanical Energy Storage, Compressed Air Energy Storage, and Flywheels 303

17 Compressed Air Energy Storage: Are the Market and Technical Knowledge Ready? 305
Pierre Bérest, Benoît Brouard, Louis Londe, and Arnaud Réveillère

17.1 Introduction 305

17.2 Historical Developments 307

17.3 Challenges Raised by Air Storage in Salt Caverns 308

17.4 (Selected) Recent Projects 314

17.5 Business Case 316

17.6 Conclusion 320

18 The Geology, Historical Background, and Developments in CAES 323
David J. Evans

18.1 Introduction 323

18.2 Operational Modes – Diabatic, Adiabatic, Isothermal (Heat), Isochoric, and Isobaric (Pressure) Operations 333

18.3 Brief Review of the Historical Origins of CAES – How It All Began and Where It Is Now 334

18.4 Overview of Underground (Geological) Storage Options 341

18.5 Summary 376

19 Compressed Air Energy Storage in Aquifer and Depleted Gas Storage Reservoirs 391
Michael J. King and George Moridis

19.1 Introduction 391

19.2 History of CAES Development 391

19.3 Power Train Requirements 393

19.4 How Does a CAES Energy Storage System Work? Matching the Storage System to CAES Power Train Requirements 394

19.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of CAES in Aquifer Structures and Depleted Gas Reservoirs 401

19.6 CAES Storage System Design Tools, Development, and Operation 403

19.7 Summary 405

20 Open Accumulator Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage (OA-ICAES) System 409
Perry Y. Li, Eric Loth, Chao (Chris) Qin, Terrence W. Simon, and James D. Van de Ven

20.1 Introduction 409

20.2 Open Accumulator Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage (OA-ICAES) System Architecture 412

20.3 Liquid Piston Isothermal Compressor/Expander 413

20.4 Using Water Droplet Spray to Enhance Heat Transfer 425

20.5 Systems and Control 429

20.6 Discussion 432

20.7 Conclusions 434

Part IV Chemical Energy Storage 439

21 Hydrogen (or Syngas) Generation – Solar Thermal 441
Jonathan Scheffe, Dylan McCord, and Diego Gordon

21.2 Solar Thermochemical Processes 447

22 Power-to-Liquids – Conversion of CO2 and Renewable H2 to Methanol 489
Robin J. White

22.1 Introduction 489

22.2 Methanol Synthesis 494

22.3 Catalysts for Methanol Synthesis 496

22.4 Transitioning to Sustainable Methanol Production 500

22.5 Elaboration of a Methanol Economy 505

22.6 Conclusion and Summary 512

23 Hydrogenation Energy Recovery – Small Molecule Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers and Catalytic Dehydrogenation 521
Jong-Hoo Choi, Dominic van der Waals, Thomas Zell, Robert Langer, and Martin H.G. Prechtl

23.1 Introduction 521

23.2 Methanol (CH3OH) 525

23.3 Formaldehyde/Methanediol (CH2O/CH2OHOH) 535

23.4 Formic Acid (HCO2H) 537

23.5 Other Alcohols, Diols, and Amino Alcohols 544

23.6 Summary and Outlook 550

24 Hydrogen Energy Recovery – H2-Based Fuel Cells 559
Nada Zamel and Ulf Groos

24.1 Introduction 559

24.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells 561

24.3 Topics of Research 569

24.4 Characterization Techniques 577

24.5 Conclusions 582

Part V Thermal Energy Storage 589

25 Thermal Energy Storage – An Introduction 591
Andreas Hauer and Eberhard Laevemann

25.1 Introduction 591

25.2 Characteristic Parameters of Thermal Energy Storage 592

25.3 The Physical Storage Principle – Sensible, Latent, and Thermochemical 596

25.4 Design of a Thermal Energy Storage and Integration into an Energy System 600

25.5 Thermal Energy Storage Classification 602

25.6 Conclusions 604

26 New Phase Change Materials for Latent Heat Storage 607
Elena Palomo del Barrio and Fouzia Achchaq

26.1 Introduction 607

26.2 Fundamentals, Materials, Groups, and Properties 608

26.3 Currently Used and Emerging Phase Change Materials 614

26.4 Approaches to Improve PCMs’ Properties 621

26.5 Commercial Status 627

26.6 Future Development Directions 627

27 Sorption Material Developments for TES Applications 631
Alenka Ristić

27.1 Introduction 631

27.2 Sorption Materials 635

27.3 Future Developments 647

28 Vacuum Super Insulated Thermal Storage Systems for Buildings and Industrial Applications 655
Thomas Beikircher and Matthias Rottmann

28.1 Introduction 655

28.2 VSI with Expanded Perlite for Highly Efficient and Economical Thermal Storages 658

28.3 Storage Media for Medium and High Temperatures 669

28.4 VSI and VSI Storages in Industrial Applications 671

28.5 Conclusions 672

29 Heat Transfer Enhancement for Latent Heat Storage Components 675
Jaume Gasia, Laia Miró, Alvaro de Gracia, and Luisa F. Cabeza

29.1 Introduction 675

29.2 Heat Transfer Enhancement Techniques 676

29.3 Technology Development and Commercial Status 690

30 Reactor Design for Thermochemical Energy Storage Systems 695
Wim Van Helden

30.1 Requirements for TCM Reactors 695

30.2 Charging and Discharging Processes in TCM Reactors 695

30.3 Types of Reactors and Examples of Design Solutions 699

30.4 Conclusions and Outlook 702

31 Phase Change Materials in Buildings – State of the Art 705
Thomas Haussmann, Tabea Obergfell, and Stefan Gschwander

31.1 Introduction 705

31.2 Materials 707

31.3 Example of Building Integration of PCM 710

31.4 Planning Boundary Conditions 722

31.5 Long Term Experience 725

32 Industrial Applications of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 729
Viktoria Martin and Ningwei Justin Chiu

32.1 Why Thermal Energy Storage in Industry? 729

32.2 Integration of TES in Industrial Scale Applications 734

32.3 Mobile TES in Innovative Energy Distribution 742

32.4 Concluding Remarks 744

33 Economy of Thermal Energy Storage Systems in Different Applications 749
Christoph Rathgeber, Eberhard Lävemann, and Andreas Hauer

33.1 Introduction 749

33.2 Methods to Evaluate Thermal Energy Storage Economics 749

33.3 Comparison of Acceptable and Realized Storage Capacity Costs in Different TES Applications 752

33.4 Discussion on the Major Influencing Factors on the Economics of Thermal Energy Storage 757

33.5 Conclusions 758

Part VI Energy Storage Concepts, Regulations, and Markets 761

34 Energy Storage Can Stop Global Warming 763
Halime Ö. Paksoy

34.1 Introduction 763

34.2 Energy Storage Technologies 765

34.3 Energy Storage Systems 766

34.4 The Potentials of Energy Storage 767

34.5 Policy Frameworks 771

34.6 Cross-cutting Aspects 772

34.7 Conclusions 773

35 Energy Storage Participation in Electricity Markets 775
Tom Brijs, Andreas Belderbos, Kris Kessels, Daan Six, Ronnie Belmans, and Frederik Geth

35.1 Introduction 775

35.2 Classification of Energy Storage Options 777

35.3 Techno-economic Energy Storage Characteristics 782

35.4 Energy Storage Applications 784

35.5 Interaction Market Opportunities and Technical Characteristics –Illustrative Case Studies 788

35.6 Conclusions 792

36 Public Perceptions and Acceptance of Energy Storage Technologies 795
Per Alex Soerensen

36.1 Introduction 795

36.2 Why Resistance? 795

36.3 Who Will Resist? 796

36.4 Cases 796

36.5 Drivers for Positive Public Perceptions and Acceptance 798

36.6 Is There a Manual for Citizen Involvement? 800

36.7 Perception of Acceptance of Energy Storage Technologies 801

37 Business Case for Energy Storage in Japan 805
Masaya Okumaya

37.1 Energy Consumption in Japan 805

37.2 Electricity Situation 806

37.3 Climate Condition and Cooling/heating Load 807

37.4 Situation of Thermal Energy Storage (TES) Spread 808

37.5 Variation of TES 809

37.6 Water Storage 810

37.7 Ice Storage 811

38 Energy Storage in the Electricity Market: Business Models and Regulatory Framework in Germany 817
Helena Teschner

38.1 Introduction 818

38.2 Business Models in Germany 819

38.3 Legal and Regulatory Framework – Opportunities and Barriers 829

38.4 Conclusion and Outlook 835

39 Integration of Renewable Energy by Distributed Energy Storages 839
Christian Doetsch and Anna Grevé

39.1 Introduction 839

39.2 Usage of Variable Renewable Energies and Induced Problems 839

39.3 Energy Balancing Technologies and Options 843

39.4 Applications for Electric Energy Storages (Adapted from [4]) 845

39.5 Business Cases for Electric Energy Storages 847

39.6 Distributed Storage Concepts 848

39.7 Summary 849

40 Thermal Storages and Power to Heat 851
Per Alex Soerensen

40.1 Introduction 851

40.2 Why Power to Heat? 851

40.3 Technologies for Power to Heat 853

40.4 Examples of Power to Heat Concepts 865

40.5 The Future. Smart Energy Systems 868

Index 871

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