The Affirmative Action Empire

The Soviet Union was the first of Europe's multiethnic states to confront the rising tide of nationalism by systematically promoting the national consciousness of its ethnic minorities and establishing for them many of the institutional forms characteristic of the modern nation-state. In the 1920s, the Bolshevik government, seeking to defuse nationalist sentiment, created tens of thousands of national territories. It trained new national leaders, established national languages, and financed the production of national-language cultural products.

This was a massive and fascinating historical experiment in governing a multiethnic state. Terry Martin provides a comprehensive survey and interpretation, based on newly available archival sources, of the Soviet management of the nationalities question. He traces the conflicts and tensions created by the geographic definition of national territories, the establishment of dozens of official national languages, and the world's first mass "affirmative action" programs.

Martin examines the contradictions inherent in the

List of Tables and Maps

xi

Acknowledgments

xiii

Footnote Abbreviations

xv

A Note on Style

xvii

The Soviet Affirmative Action Empire

1

(28)

The Logic of the Affirmative Action Empire

2

(7)

The Content of the Affirmative Action Empire

9

(6)

An Affirmative Action Empire

15

(5)

The Party and the Affirmative Action Empire

20

(3)

The Geography of the Affirmative Action Empire

23

(2)

The Chronology of the Affirmative Action Empire

25

(4)

Part One Implementing the Affirmative Action Empire

29

(180)

Borders and Ethnic Conflict

31

(44)

The Emergence of National Soviets in Ukraine

33

(15)

National Soviets in Belorussia and the RSFSR

48

(8)

National Soviets and Ethnic Conflict in the Soviet East

56

(16)

Conclusion

72

(3)

Linguistic Ukrainization, 1923--1932

75

(50)

The Background to Ukrainization, 1919--1923

78

(1)

Ukrainization, 1923--1925

79

(5)

Kaganovich's Ukrainization, April 1925--June 1926

84

(14)

The Failure of Comprehensive Ukrainization, 1926--1932

98

(24)

Conclusion

122

(3)

Affirmative Action in the Soviet East, 1923--1932

125

(57)

East and West

126

(3)

The Cultural Fund

129

(3)

Mechanical Korenizatsiia, 1923 to 1926

132

(7)

Functional Korenizatsiia, 1926 to 1928

139

(7)

Affirmative Action and Ethnic Conflict in the Industrial Work Place

146

(8)

Cultural Revolution and Korenizatsiia in the Soviet East

154

(23)

Conclusion: Korenizatsiia in East and West

177

(5)

The Latinization Campaign and the Symbolic Politics of National Identity

182

(27)

The Latinization Campaign

185

(9)

Latinization as Derussification

194

(10)

Language and Terror in the Soviet West

204

(5)

Part Two The Political Crisis of the Affirmative Action Empire

209

(100)

The Politics of National Communism, 1923--1930

211

(62)

The Shumskyi Affair

212

(16)

Nationality and the Left Opposition

228

(10)

The Socialist Offensive and Cultural Revolution

238

(11)

The Cultural Revolutionary Show Trial in Ukraine

249

(5)

Terror as a System of Signaling

254

(6)

Terror and Policy Reversal in Belorussia

260

(9)

Conclusion

269

(4)

The National Interpretation of the 1933 Famine

273

(36)

The Piedmont Principle and Soviet Border Disputes

274

(8)

The Ukrainian Question in the RSFSR

282

(9)

The Kuban Affair

291

(11)

The National Interpretation of the Grain Requisitions Crisis

302

(5)

Conclusion: The Aftermath of the December 1932 Politburo Decrees

307

(2)

Part Three Revising the Affirmative Action Empire

309

(153)

Ethnic Cleansing and Enemy Nations

311

(33)

The Border Regions

312

(4)

The Politics of Immigration

316

(3)

Collectivization and Emigration

319

(6)

The Ukrainian Crisis

325

(3)

Ethnic Cleansing

328

(7)

Enemy Nations

335

(6)

Conclusion

341

(3)

The Revised Soviet Nationalities Policy, 1933--1939

344

(50)

The Skrypnyk Affair

345

(11)

The Greatest-Danger Principle

356

(6)

Ukrainization after the Skrypnyk Affair

362

(10)

Silent Korenizatsiia in the Soviet East

372

(20)

Conclusion

392

(2)

The Reemergence of the Russians

394

(38)

The Awkward Republic: The RSFSR

394

(7)

The Internationalization of the RSFSR

401

(2)

The Russification of the RSFSR

403

(11)

Script Russification and the Symbolic Politics of the Great Retreat

414

(8)

Language and the Great Terror

422

(7)

Conclusion

429

(3)

The Friendship of the Peoples

432

(30)

The Brotherhood of the Peoples

432

(5)

The Friendship of the Peoples

437

(5)

Stalinist Primordialism

442

(9)

The First among Equals

451

(9)

Conclusion

460

(2)

Glossary

462

(3)

Bibliography

465

(18)

Index

483

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