Aflatoxin And Food Safety

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ISBN: 9780824723033 | 0824723031
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 11/1/2005

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Aflatoxins are responsible for damaging up to 25% of the world's food crops, resulting in large economic losses in developed countries and human and animal disease in under-developed ones. In addition to aflatoxins, the presence of other mycotoxins, particularly fumonisins, brings additional concerns about the safety of food and field supplies. There has not been a comprehensive, single source guide to synthesize the most up-to-date information on this issue until now. Aflatoxin and Food Safety presents the latest information available in aflatoxin research and control. The editor a leading author, educator, and speaker on mycotoxin has synthesized chapters from internationally renowned experts into a single comprehensive resource. The text considers the worldwide impact of aflatoxins and describes recent advances in research on aflatoxin production, analysis, and toxicology. It also examines the strategies used in controlling aflatoxin production in crops, including the development of crop resistance to aflatoxin by such methods as conventional breeding and genetic engineering. In its final section, the book discusses the post-harvest management of aflatoxin in contaminated foods and feeds. An ideal resourcefor those involved in a variety of biological, biomedical, and agricultural fields, Aflatoxin and Food Safety aggregates the aflatoxin research completed by the world's finest scientists over the last 15 years in a thorough and accessible format.

Chapter 1 The Costs of Mycotoxin Management in the United States

(12)

Jane Robens and Kitty F. Cardwell

1.1 Introduction

(1)

1.2 Research Costs

(1)

1.3 Testing and Insurance

(1)

1.4 Commodity Loss Estimates from the Industry

(6)

1.4.1 Peanuts

(1)

1.4.2 Cotton

(1)

1.4.3 Corn

(2)

1.4.4 Tree Nuts

(1)

1.4.5 Barley

(1)

1.4.6 Wheat

(1)

1.4.7 Animals

(1)

1.5 Discussion

(1)

References

(2)

Chapter 2 Aflatoxin and Food Safety: Recent African Perspectives

(16)

Gordon S. Shephard

2.1 Introduction

(2)

2.2 Natural Occurrence in Countries of Southern Africa

(2)

2.2.1 Botswana

(1)

2.2.2 South Africa

(2)

2.2.3 Zimbabwe

(1)

2.3 Natural Occurrence in Countries of East Africa

(1)

2.3.1 Ethiopia

(1)

2.3.2 Kenya

(1)

2.3.3 Tanzania

(1)

2.4 Natural Occurrence in Countries of North Africa

(2)

2.4.1 Egypt

(1)

2.4.2 Libya

(1)

2.4.3 Morocco

(1)

2.4.4 Sudan

(1)

2.5 Natural Occurrence in Countries of West Africa

(3)

2.5.1 Benin

(1)

2.5.2 Cameroon

(1)

2.5.3 Ghana

(1)

2.5.4 Gambia

(1)

2.5.5 Nigeria

(1)

2.5.6 Senegal

(1)

2.5.7 Sierra Leone

(1)

2.6 Conclusion

(1)

References

(6)

Chapter 3 Aflatoxin and Food Safety: Recent South American Perspectives

(30)

Vildes M. Scussel

3.1 Introduction

(4)

3.1.1 Grain Production

(1)

3.1.2 Patterns of Diet and AFL-Related Food

(1)

3.1.3 Regulation

(1)

3.1.4 Aflatoxin Exposure in the South American Population

(1)

3.2 Climate

(3)

3.2.1 Droughts and Food Supply

(1)

3.3 Natural Occurrence of Aflatoxins in South American Countries

(15)

3.3.1 Eastern South America: Brazil

(9)

3.3.1.1 Brazil Agriculture and Mycotoxins

(1)

3.3.1.2 Aflatoxins in the Brazilian Diet

(2)

3.3.1.3 Population Exposure vs. Staple Foods

(6)

3.3.2 Countries of Southern South America: Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay

(4)

3.3.3 Countries of Northern South America: Colombia, Ecuador, French Guyana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela

(2)

3.3.4 Countries of Western South America: Bolivia, Paraguay, and Peru

(1)

3.4 Organization of the South American Mycotoxicology Research Community

(1)

3.5 Conclusions

(2)

References

(6)

Chapter 4 Aflatoxins in Maize: A Mexican Perspective

(18)

Javier Plasencia

4.1 Introduction

(1)

4.2 Maize Production in Mexico

(1)

4.3 Aflatoxin Incidence in Maize and Maize-Derived Products

(1)

4.4 Aflatoxin Regulations in Mexico

(1)

4.5 Breeding for Resistance to Aflatoxin Contamination

(3)

4.6 Transgenic Maize and Aflatoxin Control in Mexico

(1)

4.7 Aspergillus Management in the Field

(1)

4.8 Aspergillus Management during Storage

(1)

4.9 Grain Treatments to Reduce Aflatoxin Levels

(1)

4.10 Fate of Aflatoxins in Processed Maize Products

(1)

4.11 Conclusions

(1)

References

(6)

Chapter 5 Worldwide Regulations on Aflatoxins

(18)

Hans P. van Egmond and Marco A. Jonker

5.1 Introduction

(1)

5.2 Main Factors Influencing Mycotoxin Regulations

(5)

5.2.1 Hazard Identification and Hazard Characterization

(2)

5.2.2 Exposure Assessment

(1)

5.2.3 Sampling Procedures

(1)

5.2.4 Methods of Analysis

(1)

5.2.5 Trade Contracts

(1)

5.2.6 Food Supply

(1)

5.2.7 Synopsis

(1)

5.3 Aflatoxin Regulations and Developments

(7)

5.3.1 The International FAO Inquiry 2002/2003

(1)

5.3.2 Observations

(6)

5.4 Concluding Remarks

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(4)

Chapter 6 Ecology and Population Biology of Aflatoxigenic Fungi in Soil

(22)

Bruce W. Horn

6.1 Introduction

(1)

6.2 Aflatoxigenic Species

(1)

6.3 Genetic Diversity of Soil Populations

(2)

6.4 Geographic Distribution

(4)

6.4.1 Regional Surveys

(1)

6.4.2 Continental Surveys

100

(2)

6.4.3 Worldwide Surveys

102

(1)

6.5 Adaptations for Survival in Soil

103

(2)

6.6 Soil as a Source of Primary Inoculum

105

(1)

6.7 Soil Population Dynamics in Relation to Crops

106

(3)

6.8 Selective Effects of Crops

109

(1)

6.9 Conclusions

110

(1)

References

110

(7)

Chapter 7 The Sterigmatocystin Cluster Revisited: Lessons from a Genetic Model

117

(20)

Tami McDonald, Tom Hammond, Daan Noordermeer, Yong-Qiang Zhang, and Nancy Keller

7.1 Introduction

118

(1)

7.2 Sterigmatocystin Cluster Genes Involved in Sterigmatocystin Synthesis

118

(7)

7.2.1 Polyketide Synthase and Fatty Acid Synthase

118

(3)

7.2.2 Monooxygenases

121

(1)

7.2.3 Dehydrogenases

122

(1)

7.2.4 Ketoreductases

123

(1)

7.2.5 Methyltransferase

123

(1)

7.2.6 Regulatory Factors AflR and AflJ

123

(2)

7.3 Sterigmatocystin Cluster Genes with Ambiguous or Unassigned Functions

125

(2)

7.3.1 Deleted Genes with Ambiguous Phenotype

125

(3)

7.3.1.1 stcI and stcQ

125

(1)

7.3.1.2 stcN

125

(1)

7.3.1.3 stcV and stcC

125

(1)

7.3.1.4 StcT

126

(1)

7.3.1.5 Uncharacterized ST Cluster Genes

127

(1)

7.4 Missing Functions in the Sterigmatocystin Cluster

127

(1)

7.5 Presence of the AF/ST Cluster in the Aspergilli and Other Genera

128

(2)

7.5.1 Genes Converting Sterigmatocystin to Aflatoxin

128

(1)

7.5.2 Unassigned Aflatoxin Cluster Genes Not Found in the Aspergillus nidulans ST Cluster

129

(1)

7.5.3 Partial Cluster Duplication in Aspergillus parasiticus

129

(1)

7.6 Conclusions

130

(1)

References

131

(6)

Chapter 8 Unlocking the Secrets Behind Secondary Metabolism: A Review of Aspergillus flavus from Pathogenicity to Functional Genomics

137

(30)

Kimberly A. Scheidegger and Gary A. Payne

8.1 Introduction

138

(1)

8.2 Classification of Aspergillus flavus

139

(4)

8.2.1 The Genus Aspergillus

139

(2)

8.2.2 Aspergillus Section Flavi

141

(1)

8.2.3 Mycotoxin Production by Species in Section Flavi

142

(1)

8.3 Population Biology

143

(3)

8.3.1 S and L Strain Distribution

144

(1)

8.3.2 Vegetative Compatibility Groups

144

(2)

8.4 Ecology

146

(3)

8.4.1 Pathogenicity

146

(2)

8.4.2 Impact of the Surrounding Environment

148

(1)

8.5 Genetics of Aflatoxin Biosynthesis

149

(4)

8.5.1 Genetic Analysis

149

(1)

8.5.2 Gene Mapping

149

(1)

8.5.3 Genome Organization

150

(1)

8.5.4 Clustering of Aflatoxin Genes

151

(2)

8.6 Regulation of Aflatoxin Biosynthesis

153

(3)

8.6.1 Pathway-Specific and Global Regulation

153

(1)

8.6.2 G-Protein Signaling and Protein Kinase Activity

154

(1)

8.6.3 Importance of Chromosomal Location

155

(1)

8.7 Genomics

156

(3)

8.7.1 Genome Sequencing and Comparative Genomics

156

(1)

8.7.2 Gene Expression Analysis

157

(2)

8.8 Summary

159

(1)

Acknowledgments

159

(1)

References

159

(8)

Chapter 9 Progress in Elucidating the Molecular Basis of the Host Plant-Aspergillus flavus Interaction: A Basis for Devising Strategies to Reduce Aflatoxin Contamination in Crops

167

(28)

Thomas E. Cleveland, Jiujiang Yu, Deepak Bhatnagar, Zhi-Yuan Chen, Robert L. Brown, Perng-Kuang Chang, and Jeffrey W. Cary

9.1 Introduction

168

(1)

9.2 Known Aspergillus flavus Genes Involved in Crop Invasion and Aflatoxin Formation

169

(10)

9.2.1 Fungal Virulence Genes

169

(3)

9.2.1.1 Pectinases

170

(1)

9.2.1.2 Proteases

170

(1)

9.2.1.3 Amylases

171

(1)

9.2.1.4 Other Hydrolases

172

(1)

9.2.2 Nutrient Utilization Genes

172

(3)

9.2.3 Aflatoxin Biosynthetic Pathway and Regulatory Genes

175

(4)

9.2.3.1 Aflatoxin Pathway Genes

175

(3)

9.2.3.2 Aflatoxin Pathway Regulatory Genes

178

(1)

9.3 Regulation of Fungal Invasion and Aflatoxin Contamination by Host Plant Factors Through Interference or Inhibition of Fungal Virulence, Growth, and Toxin Biosynthesis

179

(4)

9.3.1 Interference with Fungal Virulence or Growth by Host Factors

179

(2)

9.3.1.1 Corn Kernel Waxes and Phenolic Compounds

179

(1)

9.3.1.2 Corn Kernel Proteins/Enzymes

179

(1)

9.3.1.2.1 Chitinases and Beta-1,3-Glucanases

180

(1)

9.3.1.2.2 Proteinase/Alpha-Amylase Inhibitors/Zeamatin

180

(1)

9.3.1.2.3 Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins

180

(1)

9.3.2 Stress-Responsive Proteins and Their Possible Role in Inhibiting Fungal Invasion

181

(1)

9.3.3 Interference with Aflatoxin Biosynthesis and Related Genes by Host Plant Factors and Natural Products

182

(1)

9.4 Use of Fungal Genomics and Seed/Kernel Proteomics to Investigate Mechanisms Regulating A. flavus Invasion and Aflatoxin

Contamination of Crops During Plant–Fungus Interactions

183

(1)

References

184

(11)

Chapter 10 Epidemiology of Aflatoxin Exposure and Human Liver Cancer

195

(18)

Jia-Sheng Wang and Lili Tang

10.1 Introduction

195

(1)

10.2 Ecological and Cross-Sectional Studies

196

(2)

10.3 Case-Control Studies

198

(2)

10.4 Cohort Studies

200

(4)

10.5 Aflatoxin Exposure and Mutations in the p53 Tumor Suppressor Gene

204

(3)

10.6 Summary

207

(1)

References

207

(6)

Chapter 11 Risk of Exposure to and Mitigation of Effects of Aflatoxin on Human Health: A West African Example

213

(24)

Kitty F. Cardwell and Sara H. Henry

11.1 Introduction

214

(1)

11.2 Factors Involved in Human Exposure to Aflatoxin

214

(11)

11.2.1 Global Distribution: Developed vs. Developing Countries

214

(1)

11.2.2 Regional Distribution: Agroecosystem Influence

215

(4)

11.2.2.1 Temperate Zones

216

(1)

11.2.2.2 Humid Tropics

217

(2)

11.2.2.3 Mid-Altitudes

219

(1)

11.2.3 Distribution of Aspergillus flavus Strains

219

(1)

11.2.4 Social System and Food Basket

220

(2)

11.2.5 Association of Aflatoxin Exposure with Diseases and Disorders

222

(1)

11.2.5.1 Human Disease and Nutritional Status

222

(1)

11.2.5.2 Carcinogenicity

223

(1)

11.2.6 Growth Suppression/Immunotoxicity

223

(2)

11.2.6.1 Growth and Immune Suppression in Animals

223

(1)

11.2.6.2 Growth Suppression in Humans

224

(1)

11.3 Risk Mitigation

225

(5)

11.3.1 Efficacy of Sampling Protocols and Regulatory Action Levels

225

(2)

11.3.2 Cancer Risk Reduction

227

(1)

11.3.3 Agricultural Management

228

(2)

11.4 Conclusions

230

(1)

References

231

(6)

Chapter 12 Advances in Sampling and Analysis for Aflatoxins in Food and Animal Feed

237

(32)

John Gilbert and Eugenia A. Vargas

12.1 Introduction

237

(1)

12.2 Sampling Plans and Sampling Devices

238

(2)

12.3 Screening Methods

240

(2)

12.4 Advances in Sample Clean-Up

242

(11)

12.5 TLC and HPTLC Methodology

253

(1)

12.6 HPLC Methods

254

(2)

12.7 Other Chromatographic Approaches

256

(1)

12.8 Confirmatory Methods

256

(1)

12.9 Validation of Analytical Methods for Aflatoxins

257

(1)

12.10 Proficiency Testing

258

(2)

12.11 Conclusions

260

(1)

References

261

(8)

Chapter 13 Recent Developments in Immunochemical Methods

269

(522)

Chris M. Maragos

11.1. Introduction

269

(3)

11.2 Sensors for Detecting Fungal Toxins

272

(12)

13.2.1 Evanescent Wave Technologies

272

(4)

13.2.1.1 Fiberoptic Devices

272

(2)

13.2.1.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance

274

(2)

13.2.2 Test Strips

276

(2)

13.2.3 Fluorescence Polarization and Time-Resolved Fluorescence

278

(2)

13.2.4 Capillary-Based Immunoassays

280

(13)

13.2.4.1 Microbead Assays

280

(2)

13.2.4.2 Flow Injection Liposome Immunoassay

282

(1)

13.2.4.3 Capillary Electrophoretic Immunoassay

282

(2)

11.3 Future Challenges

284

(2)

References

286

(505)

Chapter 14 The Case for Monitoring Aspergillus ftavus Aflatoxigenicity for Food Safety Assessment in Developing Countries

791

W. Thomas Shier, Hamed K. Abbas, Mark A. Weaver, and Bruce W. Horn

14.1 Introduction

292

(1)

14.2 The Aflatoxin Problem

292

(1)

14.3 Comparison of Aflatoxin Impacts in Developed and Developing Countries

293

(4)

14.3.1 The Primary Aflatoxin Concern in Developed Countries: Regulatory Costs

294

(2)

14.3.1.1 Crop Management Costs

294

(1)

14.3.1.2 Sampling Costs

294

(1)

14.3.1.3 Analytical Costs

294

(1)

14.3.1.4 Crop Value Shift/Crop Remediation Costs

295

(1)

14.3.1.5 Research

296

(1)

14.3.1.6 Insurance

296

(1)

14.3.2 The Primary Aflatoxin Concern in Developing Countries: Health Impacts

296

(1)

14.4 Aflatoxin Monitoring in Developed Countries

297

(1)

14.5 Problems Associated with Aflatoxin Monitoring in Developing Countries

298

(2)

14.6 The Rationale for Monitoring Aflatoxigenic Fungal Contamination Levels in Developing Countries

300

(1)

14.7 Cultural Methods for Aflatoxigenicity Assessment

301

(3)

14.7.1 Sample Preparation

301

(1)

14.7.2 Selective Culture Conditions

301

(1)

14.7.3 Identification of Aflatoxigenicity

302

(14)

14.7.3.1 Blue Fluorescence

302

(1)

14.7.3.2 Cyclodextrin-Enhanced Blue Fluorescence

302

(1)

14.7.3.3 Yellow Pigment

303

(1)

14.7.3.4 Ammonium Hydroxide Vapor-Induced Color Change

303

(1)

14.7.3.5 Combined Aflatoxigenicity Test

303

(1)

14.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Monitoring Aflatoxigenic Fungal Levels in Developing Countries

304

(1)

14.9 Additional Studies Needed

305

(2)

14.10 Conclusion

307

(1)

References

307

(6)

Chapter 15 Application of Technology of Gene Expression in Response to Drought Stress and Elimination of Preharvest Aflatoxin Contamination

313

(20)

Baozhu Z. Guo, C. Corley Holbrook, Jiujiang Yu, Dewey R. Lee, and Robert E. Lynch

15.1 Introduction

314

(1)

15.2 Aflatoxin Contamination and Environmental Factors

314

(1)

15.3 Drought Stress/Tolerance and Aflatoxin Contamination

315

(1)

15.4 Genetic Engineering and Prevention of Aflatoxin Formation

316

(3)

15.4.1 Insect Resistance in Transgenic Crops

317

(1)

15.4.2 Fungal Resistance and Inhibition of Toxin Production in Transgenic Crops

318

(1)

15.5 Molecular Tools to Study Gene Expression

319

(5)

15.5.1 Expressed Gene Differential Display

319

(1)

15.5.2 Expressed Sequence Tag and Macro/Microarray

320

(1)

15.5.3 Proteomics

321

(1)

15.5.4 Transgenes/Genetic Transformation

322

(20)

15.5.4.1 Expression Vector

322

(1)

15.5.4.2 Promoter

323

(1)

15.5.4.3 Methods for Transformation

323

(1)

15.6 Summary and Prospects

324

(1)

References

325

(8)

Chapter 16 Biological Control of Aflatoxin Crop Contamination

333

(20)

Joe W. Dorner

16.1 Introduction

333

(1)

16.2 Bacteria and Yeasts

334

(1)

16.3 Competitive Fungi

335

(2)

16.4 Formulations

337

(4)

16.5 Fungal Dispersal

341

(1)

16.6 Crops

342

(6)

16.6.1 Peanuts

342

(4)

16.6.2 Cotton

346

(2)

16.6.3 Corn

348

(1)

16.7 Conclusions

348

(1)

References

349

(4)

Chapter 17 Breeding Corn to Reduce Preharvest Aflatoxin Contamination

353

(26)

Javier Betrán, Tom Isakeit, Gary Odvody, and Kerry Mayfield

17.1 Introduction

354

(1)

17.2 Experimental Approaches to Evaluating Corn Germplasm for Response to Aflatoxin

354

(2)

17.2.1 Inoculation and Aflatoxin Quantification

354

(1)

17.2.2 Field Experimental Designs and Data Analysis

355

(1)

17.2.3 Environments for Aflatoxin Evaluation

356

(1)

17.3 Genetic Parameters for Aflatoxin Response

356

(3)

17.3.1 Repeatabilities for Single Environment Trials

356

(1)

17.3.2 Genotype and Environmental Interaction

357

(1)

17.3.3 Inbred—Hybrid Correlation for Aflatoxin

357

(2)

17.4 Plant Traits Associated with Response to Aflatoxin

359

(3)

17.4.1 Husk Coverage and Maturity

359

(1)

17.4.2 Endosperm Type

359

(1)

17.4.3 Kernel Integrity

360

(1)

17.4.4 Drought and Heat Tolerance and Adaptation

361

(1)

17.5 Evaluation of Inbred Lines

362

(3)

17.5.1 White Inbreds

362

(1)

17.5.2 Yellow Inbreds

363

(1)

17.5.3 Specialty Corn Inbreds

363

(2)

17.6 Evaluation of Inbreds in Hybrids

365

(8)

17.6.1 White Hybrids

366

(1)

17.6.2 Yellow Hybrids

366

(3)

17.6.3 Testcrosses

369

(1)

17.6.4 Diallels

369

(1)

17.6.5 Factorial Designs

370

(1)

17.6.6 Generation Mean Analysis

371

(1)

17.6.7 Commercial Hybrids

372

(1)

17.7 Overview of Development of Inbreds and Hybrids that Reduce the Risk of Aflatoxin

373

(1)

17.8 Conclusions and Current Directions

374

(1)

Acknowledgments

375

(1)

References

375

(4)

Chapter 18 Enhancing Maize with Resistance to Aspergillus flavus Infection and Aflatoxin Accumulation

379

(16)

W. Paul Williams, Gary L. Windham, and Paul M. Buckley

18.1 Introduction

379

(1)

18.2 Establishing a Breeding Program at Mississippi State

380

(1)

18.2.1 Developing Germplasm Evaluation Techniques

380

(1)

18.2.2 Identifying Aflatoxin-Resistant Germplasm

381

(1)

18.3 Current Efforts to Identify New Sources of Resistance

381

(1)

18.3.1 Materials and Methods

381

(1)

18.3.2 Results and Discussion

382

(1)

18.4 Evaluation of Inbred Lines and Advanced Breeding Lines

382

(5)

18.4.1 Materials and Methods

382

(3)

18.4.2 Results and Discussion

385

(2)

18.5 Performance of Aflatoxin-Resistant Lines in Crosses

387

(2)

18.5.1 Materials and Methods

387

(1)

18.5.1.1 Diallel Cross

387

(1)

18.5.1.2 Single-Cross Evaluation

387

(1)

18.5.2 Results and Discussion

388

(20)

18.5.2.1 Diallel Cross

388

(1)

18.5.2.2 Single-Cross Evaluation

388

(1)

18.6 Conclusions and Future Directions

389

(4)

Acknowledgments

393

(1)

References

393

(2)

Chapter 19 Identifying Sources of Resistance to Aflatoxin and Fumonisin Contamination in Corn Grain: History and Progress from the University of Illinois

395

(12)

Michael J. Clements and Donald G. White

19.1 Introduction

395

(1)

19.2 Sources of Resistance to Aflatoxin Contamination in Corn Grain

396

(4)

19.3 Sources of Resistance to Fumonisin Accumulation in Corn Grain

400

(2)

19.4 Current Direction

402

(1)

Acknowledgments

403

(1)

References

403

(4)

Chapter 20 Techniques Used to Identify Aflatoxin-Resistant Corn

407

(16)

Gary L. Windham, W. Paul Williams, Paul M. Buckley, Hamed K. Abbas, and Leigh K. Hawkins

20.1 Introduction

407

(1)

20.2 Evaluation of Aflatoxin Resistance in the Field

408

(8)

20.2.1 Nonwounding Inoculation Techniques

408

(2)

20.2.2 Wounding Inoculation Techniques

410

(3)

20.2.3 Inoculum

413

(1)

20.2.4 Harvest, Sample Preparation, Toxin Analyses, and Fungal Infection

414

(1)

20.2.5 Environmental Effects

415

(1)

20.3 Evaluation of Aflatoxin Resistance in the Laboratory

416

(1)

20.4 Safety Precautions

416

(1)

20.5 Summary

417

(1)

Acknowledgments

417

(1)

References

417

(6)

Chapter 21 Marker-Assisted Breeding for Host Resistance to Mycotoxin Contamination

423

(14)

Leilani A. Robertson, Gary A. Payne, and James B. Holland

21.1 Introduction

423

(1)

21.2 Strategy for Marker-Assisted Breeding

424

(2)

21.3 Challenges in QTL Identification

426

(4)

21.4 Applications of Marker-Assisted Breeding

430

(1)

21.5 Conventional Breeding vs. Marker-Assisted Breeding

431

(1)

21.6 Argument for Marker-Assisted Breeding

431

(2)

References

433

(4)

Chapter 22 Prevention of Preharvest Aflatoxin Contamination: Integration of Crop Management and Genetics in Corn

437

(22)

Baozhu Z. Guo, Neil W. Widstrom, Dewey R. Lee, David M. Wilson, and Anton E. Coy

22.1 Introduction

438

(1)

22.2 Environmental Factors

438

(2)

22.2.1 Temperature

439

(1)

22.2.2 Rainfall

439

(1)

22.2.3 Relative Humidity and Net Evaporation

440

(1)

22.2.4 Soil Type

440

(1)

22.3 Crop Management Factors

440

(3)

22.3.1 Planting Date

441

(1)

22.3.2 Irrigation

441

(1)

22.3.3 Tillage

442

(1)

22.3.4 Fertilization

442

(1)

22.3.5 Weed Control

442

(1)

22.3.6 Fungal Competition

443

(1)

22.4 Genetic Control Strategies

443

(5)

22.4.1 Conventional

443

(1)

22.4.2 Related Plant Resistance Factors

444

(1)

22.4.2.1 Insects

444

(1)

22.4.2.2 Silk Maysin

444

(1)

22.4.2.3 Husk Coverage

444

(1)

22.4.3 Plant Resistance to Aflatoxin Formation

445

(15)

22.4.3.1 Plant Stress

445

(1)

22.4.3.2 Kernel Resistance

445

(1)

22.4.3.3 Genetic Studies and Selection

446

(1)

22.4.3.4 Molecular Breeding

447

(1)

22.5 Conclusions

448

(1)

References

449

(10)

Chapter 23 Bt Corn and Mycotoxin Reduction: An Economic Perspective

459

(24)

Felicia Wu, J. David Miller, and Elizabeth A. Casman

23.1 Introduction

459

(1)

23.2 Mycotoxins in Corn

460

(4)

23.2.1 Aflatoxins

460

(2)

23.2.2 Fumonisins

462

(2)

23.2.3 Deoxynivalenol

464

(1)

23.3 Bt Corn

464

(3)

23.4 Evidence That Bt Corn Reduces Mycotoxin Levels

467

(3)

23.4.1 Aflatoxin

467

(1)

23.4.2 Fumonisins

468

(2)

23.4.3 Deoxynivalenol

470

(1)

23.5 Economic Analysis of the Impact of Bt Corn on Mycotoxin Reduction

470

(4)

23.6 Results

474

(1)

23.6.1 Aflatoxins

474

(1)

23.6.2 Fumonisins

474

(1)

23.6.3 Deoxynivalenol

475

(1)

23.7 Discussion

475

(2)

23.7.1 The United States

475

(2)

23.7.2 The Developing World

477

(1)

Acknowledgments

477

(1)

References

478

(5)

Chapter 24 Advances in Reducing Aflatoxin Contamination of U.S. Tree Nuts

483

(34)

Bruce C. Campbell, Russell J. Molyneux, and Thomas F. Schatzki

24.1 Introduction

483

(4)

24.1.1 The Tree Nut Industry

484

(1)

24.1.2 Trade and Food Safety Issues

485

(1)

24.1.3 Mechanisms for Aflatoxin Contamination of Tree Nuts

485

(2)

24.2 Research Efforts

487

(18)

24.2.1 Reducing Preharvest Contamination

487

(9)

24.2.1.1 Insect Control

487

(1)

24.2.1.1.1 Semiochemical-Based Insect Control

488

(1)

24.2.1.1.2 Other Strategies for Insect Control

489

(1)

24.2.1.1.3 Insect Pests and Aflatoxin Interactions

490

(2)

24.2.1.2 Fungal Control

492

(1)

24.2.1.2.1 Fungal Associations with Tree Nuts

492

(1)

24.2.1.2.2 Constitutive Natural Products

492

(4)

24.2.1.3 Cultural Practices

496

(1)

24.2.2 Reducing Postharvest Contamination

496

(28)

24.2.2.1 Rehydration

496

(1)

24.2.2.2 Sampling Theory

497

(2)

24.2.2.3 Sampling Applications, Results, and Use

499

(4)

24.2.2.4 Sorting

503

(2)

24.3 Summary and Conclusions

505

(1)

Acknowledgments

506

(1)

References

506

(11)

Chapter 25 Strategies for Insect Management Targeted Toward Mycotoxin Management

517

(26)

Patrick F. Dowd, Eric T. Johnson, and W. Paul Williams

25.1 Introduction

518

(1)

25.2 Interactions

518

(1)

25.3 New Insights

518

(1)

25.4 Monitoring

519

(3)

25.5 Insecticides

522

(1)

25.6 Cultural Practices

523

(1)

25.7 Biological Control

524

(1)

25.8 Host Plant Resistance to Insects

524

(8)

25.8.1 New Sources of Resistance

524

(2)

25.8.2 Bt Genes

526

(4)

25.8.2.1 Introduction

526

(1)

25.8.2.2 Bt Gene Effects on Fusarium Mycotoxins

526

(1)

25.8.2.3 Bt Gene Effects on Aspergillus Mycotoxins

527

(1)

25.8.2.4 Factors Mitigating the Efficacy of Bt Maize Hybrids in Reducing Mycotoxin Levels

528

(2)

25.8.3 Other Transgenes Promoting Insect Resistance

530

(1)

25.8.4 Benefits and Concerns about Transgene Use

530

(1)

25.8.5 Deployment of Resistance Genes

531

(1)

25.9 Integrated Management Programs

532

(1)

25.10 Conclusions

532

(1)

Acknowledgments

533

(1)

References

533

(10)

Chapter 26 Chemical Detoxification of Aflatoxins in Food and Feeds

543

(12)

Joan M. King and Alfredo D. Prudente, Jr.

26.1 Introduction

543

(1)

26.2 Chemical Detoxification

544

(5)

26.2.1 Acid Treatment

544

(1)

26.2.2 Alkaline Treatment with Hydroxide

544

(1)

26.2.3 Bisulfite Treatment

545

(1)

26.2.4 Hypochlorite Treatment

546

(1)

26.2.5 Ammoniation Treatment

546

(1)

26.2.6 Ozonation

547

(2)

26.3 Natural Inhibition

549

(1)

26.4 Summary

549

(1)

References

550

(5)

Chapter 27 Feedborne Mycotoxins in Aquaculture Feeds: Impact arid Management of Aflatoxin, Fumonisin, and Moniliformin

555

(12)

Bruce B. Manning, Menghe H. Li, and Edwin H. Robinson

27.1 Introduction

555

(1)

27.2 Aflatoxin

556

(2)

27.3 Fusarium Mycotoxins: Fumonisin and Moniliformin

558

(2)

27.4 Impact of Feedborne Mycotoxins on Disease Resistance of Fish

560

(1)

27.5 Reduction of Mycotoxin Contamination in Aquaculture Feeds

561

(1)

27.6 Prevention of Mycotoxin Contamination in Aquaculture Feeds

562

(1)

27.7 Conclusions

563

(1)

References

563

(4)

Index

567

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