Agricultural Pollution: Environmental

This comprehensive text provides a concise overview of environmental problems caused by agriculture (such as pesticide pollution and increased nitrate levels) and offers practical solutions to them. It is well illustrated and contains a fully-referenced introduction to the main contemporary agricultural pollution issues in the UK. It will help provide clear, scientific and technical understanding of the most important sources of agricultura pollution.

Graham Merrington is Lecturer in Soil Chemistry, Adelaide University, Australia.

List of Figures

xi

List of Tables

xiii

Acknowledgements

xv

Agriculture and Pollution

1

(10)

Setting the Scene

1

(4)

Defining Agricultural Pollution

3

(2)

Solving the Problem

5

(6)

Monitoring Impacts

5

(2)

Cost -- the Driver for Pollution Control

7

(4)

Nitrates and Nitrogen Loss

11

(32)

Introduction

11

(2)

Nitrogen and Agriculture

11

(2)

The Nitrogen Cycle

13

(3)

Atmospheric Deposition

13

(1)

Biological Fixation

14

(1)

Fertilisers

15

(1)

Animal Manures

16

(1)

Nitrogen Transformations

16

(6)

Nitrogen Mineralisation

17

(1)

Nitrogen Immobilisation

17

(1)

Nitrification

18

(1)

Adsorption and Fixation

18

(1)

Nitrogen Uptake and Losses

18

(1)

Nitrate Leaching

19

(2)

Nitrous Oxide and Nitric Oxide Emissions from Nitrification and Denitrification

21

(1)

Ammonia Volatilisation

22

(1)

Nitrogen Fertiliser Use In Agriculture

22

(2)

The Causes of Nitrate Pollution

24

(4)

Problems Caused by Nitrate Pollution

28

(2)

Nitrate and Drinking Water Quality

28

(1)

Eutrophication

29

(1)

Nitrates in Food

30

(1)

Reducing Nitrate Losses from Agriculture

30

(13)

Source Management-- Optimisation of Fertiliser N Use

33

(1)

Cultivation and Crop Management

34

(9)

Phosphorus

43

(30)

Introduction

43

(1)

Phosphorus and Agriculture

43

(1)

The Phosphorus Cycle

44

(10)

Phosphours Inputs and Outputs

45

(1)

Fertilisers

46

(1)

Atmospheric Inputs

47

(1)

Animal Manures

48

(1)

P Transformations in Soil

49

(1)

Distribution of P in Soil

49

(3)

P Sorption

52

(2)

Phosphorus Losses

54

(4)

Surface Run-Off

55

(2)

Leaching and Drain Flow

57

(1)

Environmental Implications of P Pollution

58

(2)

N and P Balance in Natural Water

58

(2)

Environmental Problems Caused by P Pollution

60

(3)

P in Ground and Surface Waters

60

(2)

Eutrophication

62

(1)

Practical Solutions

63

(10)

Source Management-- Optimisation of Fertiliser P Use

64

(1)

Animal Feeds

65

(2)

P Transfer Management by Soil Conservation

67

(6)

Soil Erosion

73

(20)

Introduction

73

(1)

Vulnerability of Soil to Erosion and Degradation

73

(8)

Extent of Erosion

73

(1)

Processes and Products of Erosion

74

(1)

Water Erosion

75

(3)

Wind Erosion

78

(1)

Agricultural Land Management Practices and Accelerated Erosion

79

(2)

Environment Impacts of Soil Erosion

81

(3)

Impacts of Sediment on Aquatic Environments

81

(1)

Physical Impacts

81

(1)

Chemical Impacts

82

(2)

Impacts of Sediments on Land

84

(1)

Practical Solutions to Soil Erosion

84

(9)

Assessment of Erosion Risk

85

(1)

Field and Crop Based Erosion Control Strategies

86

(2)

Farm and Catchment Based Erosion Control Strategies

88

(5)

Organic Wastes

93

(42)

Introduction

93

(2)

Organic Wastes and Agriculture

93

(2)

Farm Wastes

95

(8)

Changes in Farming Systems

96

(2)

Pollution Risks From Farm Wastes

98

(1)

Ammonia in Watercourses

99

(2)

Pathogens From Farm Wastes

101

(1)

Veterinary Products in Farm Wastes

101

(1)

Water Pollution Incidents

102

(1)

Non-Agricultural Organic Soil Amendments

103

(11)

Sewage Sludge or Biosolids

103

(2)

Pollution Risks from Applying Sewage Sludge to Agricultural Land

105

(4)

N and P Pollution from Sewage Sludge

109

(1)

Odours

110

(1)

Pathogens

110

(1)

Other Non-Agricultural Organic Wastes

111

(1)

Detrimental Effects of Applying Non-Agricultural Wastes to Land

112

(2)

Practical Solutions

114

(11)

Farm Waste Handling, Storage and Disposal

114

(1)

Solid Manures

115

(1)

Silage

116

(1)

Slurry

117

(1)

Dirty Water

118

(1)

Good Agricultural Practice

119

(6)

Non-Agricultural Organic Wastes

125

(3)

Avoiding Pollution Problems by Potentially Toxic Elements in Sewage Sludge

126

(1)

Avoiding Crop Contamination by Pathogens

127

(1)

Alternative Technologies for Farm Waste Treatment

128

(7)

Biogas Production

128

(1)

Reed Bed Treatment

129

(6)

Gaseous Emissions

135

(23)

Introduction

135

(1)

Agriculture and Gaseous Emissions

135

(1)

Ammonia Emissions

136

(4)

Pollution Problems

136

(1)

Source of Ammonia Pollution

137

(1)

Practical Solutions

138

(1)

Minimising Ammonia Emissions by Good Practice

139

(1)

Methane Emissions

140

(3)

Pollution Problems

140

(1)

Sources

140

(1)

Practical Solutions

140

(3)

Nitrous Oxide Emissions

143

(3)

Pollution Problems

143

(1)

Source of Pollution

143

(2)

Practical Solutions

145

(1)

Carbon Dioxide Emissions

146

(2)

Pollution Problems

146

(1)

Sources of Pollution

147

(1)

Practical Solutions

147

(1)

Farm Odours

148

(10)

Sources of Pollution

148

(2)

Practical Solutions

150

(1)

The Location and Design of New Livestock Units

151

(1)

Minimising Odour Nuisance by Good Management Practice

152

(1)

Technologies for Reducing Odour Nuisance

153

(5)

Pesticides

158

(38)

Introduction

158

(1)

Pesticide History

158

(1)

Pesticide Use

158

(1)

Pesticides and Their Application

159

(2)

Mode of Action

161

(1)

Insecticides

162

(2)

Organophosphates

162

(1)

Carbamates

163

(1)

Pyrethroids

163

(1)

Herbicides

164

(1)

Triazines

164

(1)

Phenoxyacetic Acids

164

(1)

Carbamates

165

(1)

Fungicides

165

(1)

Traditional Inorganics

165

(1)

Phenylamides

166

(1)

Carboxamides or Oxathins

166

(1)

The Causes of Pesticide Pollution

166

(3)

Pesticides As Pollutants

166

(1)

Resistance and Resurgence

167

(2)

Behaviour and Fate of Pesticides in the Environment

169

(4)

Persistence

169

(1)

The fate of Pesticides in Soil

170

(1)

Loss of Pesticides from Soil

171

(2)

Environmental Problems Caused by Pesticide Residues

173

(6)

Pesticides in Surface and Ground Waters

173

(2)

Effects on non-farmed Organisms

175

(4)

Practical Solutions

179

(4)

Good Practice

179

(1)

User Training

180

(1)

Planning and Preparation

180

(1)

Working With Pesticides

181

(1)

Disposal of Waste

182

(1)

Keeping Records

182

(1)

Other Considerations

182

(1)

New Technology

183

(2)

Adjuvants

184

(1)

New Formulations

184

(1)

Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticides

185

(11)

Naturally Derived Pesticides

185

(1)

Microbial Pesticides

185

(1)

Non-Chemical Weed Control

186

(1)

Non-Chemical Pest Control

187

(9)

Genetic Modification

196

(19)

Introduction

196

(4)

Risks and Benefits

200

(9)

Herbicide-Resistant Crops

200

(6)

Insect-Resistant Crops

206

(3)

Assessing Environmental Risk

209

(2)

The Future for GMOs

211

(4)

Policy Strategies for Redusing Pollution

215

(22)

Introduction

215

(1)

The Emergence of Contemporary Agri-Environmental Policy

215

(3)

Agri-Environment Regulation 2078/92

216

(2)

Rural Development Regulation 1297/1999

218

(1)

Policy Instruments, Strategies and Implementation

218

(5)

Policy Strategies

219

(1)

Policy Instruments

219

(3)

Implementation and Dissemination

222

(1)

Learning from Experience

223

(8)

Policies for Reducing Nitrate Pollution

223

(2)

Nitrate Pollution Control Policies in the UK and Europe

225

(2)

Policies for Reducing Pesticides Pollution

227

(1)

Pesticide Reduction Programmes in Europe

228

(3)

Future Directions

231

(6)

Adoption of Sustainable Farming Practices

231

(2)

Legislative Changes

233

(4)

Author Index

237

(2)

Subject Index

239

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Agricultural Pollution: Environmental Problems and Practical Solutions

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials