Analytical And Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair

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ISBN: 9780849364501 | 0849364507
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Copyright: 8/30/2006

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Many advances have been made since the publication of Drug Testing in Hair. The mid-1990s witnessed the progress in cannabis detection while the late 1990s focused on benzodiazepines detection and the applications in doping control. In more recent years, toxicologists centered on the detection in hair of a single exposure and the related applications in drug-facilitated crimes. Presenting these topics as well as the latest findings from the international community, Analytical and Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair reviews all new developments, the validation of analytical procedures, and the interpretation of data.Written by well-known, international authors, this comprehensive reference provides practical coverage of the best drug testing techniques and examines the drugs themselves. Some of the applications discussed include doping, drug-facilitated crime investigating, workplace testing, and the granting of drivers' licenses. The authors describe specific drugs, such as opiates, cocaine, and cannabis, and discuss the different testing methods for them. The book also covers postmortem toxicology, pitfalls created by passive exposure, and testing for metals, including inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (ICP-MS), hair multielementary analysis, and the new speciation analysis.A complete, up-to-date resource that explains numerous drug testing techniques, Analytical and Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair provides useful information for toxicologists, forensic scientists, sports medicine specialists, and pathologists.

Chapter 1 Drug Incorporation into Hair

(24)

Robert Kronstrand and Karen Scott

1.1 Hair Physiology

(4)

1.1.1 Structure and Growth of Human Hair

(2)

1.1.2 Pigmentation

(2)

1.2 Drug Incorporation Routes

(4)

1.2.1 Incorporation from the Bloodstream

(2)

1.2.2 Incorporation from Sweat and Other Secretions

(1)

1.2.3 Incorporation from External Contamination

(1)

1.3 Mechanisms of Binding

(8)

1.3.1 In Vitro Binding Studies to Melanin and Keratin

(1)

1.3.2 Evaluation of Binding Parameters

(2)

1.3.3 Effects of Melanin Type

(1)

1.3.4 Drug Binding during Melanogenesis

(1)

1.3.5 In Vivo Studies on Binding of Drugs to Hair

(1)

1.3.6 Keratin

(1)

1.4 General Discussion

(2)

1.4.1 Routes

(1)

1.4.2 Binding

(1)

1.5 Concluding Remarks

(1)

References

(6)

Chapter 2 Passive Exposure, Decontamination Procedures, Cutoffs, and Bias: Pitfalls in the Interpretation of Hair Analysis Results for Cocaine Use

(48)

David A. Kidwell and Frederick P. Smith

2.1 Introduction

(1)

2.2 Historical Concerns for Passive Exposure in Hair Analysis

(2)

2.3 Mechanisms for Incorporation of Drugs into Hair

(8)

2.3.1 Why Consider Mechanisms of Drug Incorporation?

(1)

2.3.2 Models for Drug Incorporation

(2)

2.3.3 Basis for the Models Depicted in Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2

(5)

2.4 Drugs in the Environment

(6)

2.5 Decontamination Procedures

(9)

2.5.1 Decontamination Solvents

(8)

2.6 Cutoffs and Why They Matter

(4)

2.7 Bias in Hair Testing

(11)

2.7.1 Definition of Bias

(7)

2.7.2 Bias is Not Observed in Convenience Studies

(1)

2.7.3 Bias Is Observed in Controlled-Dose Studies

(1)

2.7.4 Bias Due to Exposure

(3)

2.8 Conclusions

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(6)

Chapter 3 Opioids Testing in Hair

(22)

Michel Yegles and Robert Wennig

3.1 Introduction

(2)

3.2 Opiates

(11)

3.2.1 Metabolism of Opiates

(1)

3.2.2 Hair Analysis

(6)

3.2.2.1 Testing Methods

(1)

3.2.2.1.1 Hair Decontamination

(1)

3.2.2.1.2 Extraction

(1)

3.2.2.1.3 Cleanup

(1)

3.2.2.1.4 Analytical Techniques

(1)

3.2.2.2 Interpretation of Results

(1)

3.2.2.2.1 Cutoff

(1)

3.2.2.2.2 Dose/Hair Concentration Relationship

(1)

3.2.2.2.3 Cosmetic Treatment

(1)

3.2.3 Methadone

(2)

3.2.3.1 Testing Methods

(1)

3.2.3.1.1 Decontamination

(1)

3.2.3.1.2 Extraction

(1)

3.2.3.1.3 Cleanup

(1)

3.2.3.1.4 Analysis

(1)

3.2.3.2 Methadone Findings in Hair

(1)

3.2.4 Buprenorphine

(2)

3.2.4.1 Testing Methods

(1)

3.2.4.2 Buprenorphine Findings in Hair

(1)

3.2.5 Fentanyl and Congeners

(1)

3.2.6 Other Opioids

(1)

3.3 Conclusions

(2)

References

(7)

Chapter 4 Hair Analysis for Cocaine

(32)

Carmen Jurado

4.1 Introduction

(1)

4.2 Analytical Methodologies

(12)

4.2.1 Decontamination Procedures

(1)

4.2.2 Extraction

(5)

4.2.2.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction

102

(1)

4.2.2.2 Purification

103

(1)

4.2.3 Instrumental Analysis

104

(4)

4.2.3.1 Screening Methods

104

(2)

4.2.3.2 Confirmation Methods

106

(2)

4.3 Quality Control

108

(3)

4.3.1 Internal Quality Control

108

(1)

4.3.2 External Quality Control or Interlaboratory Comparison Studies

108

(3)

4.4 Interpretation of Results

111

(7)

4.4.1 Cutoff Values for the Analysis of Cocaine in Hair Samples

112

(1)

4.4.2 Dose—Concentration Relationship

113

(2)

4.4.3 Window of Detection of Cocaine in Hair Samples

115

(1)

4.4.4 Influence of the Hair Color

115

(2)

4.4.5 Influence of Cosmetic Treatment in Drug Concentrations

117

(1)

Acknowledgments

118

(1)

Abbreviations

119

(1)

References

120

(7)

Chapter 5 Determination of Cannabinoids in Human Hair

127

(16)

Michael Uhl

5.1 Introduction

127

(1)

5.2 Metabolism, Incorporation of Cannabinoids into Hair

128

(1)

5.3 Analytical Techniques for the Detection of Cannabinoids

129

(1)

5.4 Decontamination Processes

130

(2)

5.5 Issues To Be Considered

132

(2)

5.5.1 Issue of External Contamination

132

(1)

5.5.2 Issue of Influence of Cosmetic Treatment

133

(1)

5.5.3 Degradation Processes by UV Light, Cause of Damage to the Hair Matrix

133

(1)

5.6 Criteria for Obtaining a Cannabis-Positive Hair-Test Result

134

(1)

5.7 Controlled Studies: Empirical Data Analysis of a Large Sample of Hair Specimens

134

(3)

5.8 Reported Concentrations of Cannabinoids in Hair

137

(1)

5.9 Conclusions

137

(1)

References

138

(5)

Chapter 6 Amphetamine Determination in Hair

143

(20)

Vincent Cirimele

6.1 Introduction

143

(1)

6.2 Preamble

144

(1)

6.3 Amphetamine Determination

145

(12)

6.3.1 Nonchromatographic Methods

145

(1)

6.3.2 Chromatographic Methods

146

(6)

6.3.2.1 Gas Chromatography

146

(2)

6.3.2.2 Liquid Chromatography

148

(2)

6.3.2.3 Other Chromatographic Methods

150

(1)

6.3.2.3.1 HS-SPME/SPDE

150

(1)

6.3.2.3.2 SFE

151

(1)

6.3.2.4 Other Technologies

151

(1)

6.3.2.4.1 Laser Microscopy

151

(1)

6.3.2.4.2 IMS

152

(1)

6.3.3 Isomer Separation

152

(2)

6.3.4 Screening Methods

154

(2)

6.3.5 Head Hair versus Other Hair and Nails

156

(1)

6.3.6 Effects of Cosmetic Treatments

157

(1)

6.4 Conclusion

157

(1)

References

158

(5)

Chapter 7 Pharmaceuticals in Hair

163

(24)

Marjorie Chèze, Marc Deveaux, Gaëlle Duffort, Francis Billault, and Gilbert Pépin

7.1 Introduction

163

(1)

7.2 Discussion

164

(18)

7.3 Conclusion

182

(1)

References

183

(4)

Chapter 8 Screening Strategies in Hair Analysis on Drugs

187

(14)

Hans Sachs

8.1 Introduction

187

(2)

8.2 Immunochemical Screening in Hair Analysis

189

(1)

8.3 Screening and Confirmation by GC-MS/MS

190

(1)

8.4 Multianalyte Screening Using LC-MS/MS

190

(5)

8.4.1 Multianalyte Procedures for Urine and Blood

190

(1)

8.4.2 Multianalyte Procedures in Hair Analysis

190

(5)

8.5 Crime Cases Solved by Screening Hair Using LC-MS/MS

195

(3)

8.6 Conclusions

198

(1)

References

198

(3)

Chapter 9 Clinical Applications of Hair Analysis

201

(22)

Simona Pichini, Óscar Garcia-Algar, and Rafael de la Torre

9.1 Introduction

201

(1)

9.2 Hair Analysis in Psychiatric Patients

202

(1)

9.3 Hair Analysis in Epileptic Management

203

(1)

9.4 Hair Analysis as Evidence of Prenatal and Postnatal Exposure to Drugs and Tobacco

204

(5)

9.5 Hair Nicotine as a Marker of Active and Passive Exposure to Tobacco

209

(1)

9.6 Drug Addiction and Opiate-Maintenance Programs

210

(6)

9.7 Therapeutic Drug Monitoring

216

(1)

References

217

(6)

Chapter 10 Hair in Postmortem Toxicology

223

(18)

Robert Kronstrand and Henrik Druid

10.1 Introduction

223

(1)

10.2 Methodological Aspects

224

(6)

10.2.1 Hair Sampling

224

(2)

10.2.2 Segmentation and Preparation

226

(2)

10.2.3 Washing

228

(1)

10.2.4 Further Preparation

229

(1)

10.2.5 Screening

229

(1)

10.2.6 Confirmation

230

(1)

10.3 Strategies in Postmortem Work

230

(3)

10.3.1 Investigation of Overdose Cases

230

(3)

10.3.2 Medications

233

(1)

10.4 Conclusions and Take-Home Message

233

(4)

References

237

(4)

Chapter 11 Detection of Doping Agents in Human Hair

241

(14)

Pascal Kintz

11.1 Introduction

241

(1)

11.2 Procedures

242

(1)

11.2.1 Specimen Collection

242

(1)

11.2.2 Decontamination Procedures

243

(1)

11.3 Detection of Doping Agents

243

(7)

11.3.1 Detection of Anabolic Steroids

243

(4)

11.3.2 Detection of Corticosteroids

247

(2)

11.3.3 Detection of b-Adrenergic Compounds

249

(1)

11.4 Discussion

250

(2)

11.5 Conclusions

252

(1)

References

253

(2)

Chapter 12 Applications of Hair in Drug-Facilitated Crime Evidence

255

(18)

Marion Villain

12.1 Introduction

255

(1)

12.2 Analytical Strategy

256

(3)

12.2.1 Specimen Collection

256

(1)

12.2.2 GHB Analysis by GC-MS/MS

257

(1)

12.2.3 Hypnotics Analysis by LC-MS/MS

258

(1)

12.3 Case Reports

259

(11)

12.3.1-12.3.2 Cases 1 and 2

262

(2)

12.3.3-12.3.6 Cases 3-6

264

(1)

12.3.7-12.3.8 Cases 7 and 8

265

(1)

12.3.9-12.3.10 Cases 9-11

266

(1)

12.3.12 Case 12

267

(1)

12.3.13 Case 13

268

(1)

12.3.14 Case 14

269

(1)

12.3.15 Case 15

270

(1)

12.4 Discussion

270

(1)

12.5 Conclusion

271

(1)

References

271

(2)

Chapter 13 Application of Hair in Driving-License Regranting

273

(14)

Manfred R. Moeller, Hans Sachs, and Fritz Pragst

13.1 Introduction

273

(1)

13.2 Sensitivity of Drug Abuse Detection: Comparison between Urine and Hair Analysis

274

(2)

13.3 Hair Sampling for Drug Analysis

276

(1)

13.4 Manipulation of Drug Concentrations in Hair

276

(1)

13.5 Hair Analysis for Regranting Driver's License

277

(5)

13.5.1 France

277

(1)

13.5.2 Germany

278

(4)

13.5.3 Italy

282

(1)

13.6 Regulations in Other Countries

282

(1)

13.7 Conclusions

282

(2)

References

284

(3)

Chapter 14 Alcohol Markers in Hair

287

(38)

Fritz Pragst and Michel Yegles

14.1 General Problems in Detection of Chronic Alcohol Abuse

288

(2)

14.2 Fatty Acid Ethyl Esters (FAEE)

290

(13)

14.2.1 Formation, Distribution, and Elimination of FAEE in Humans

290

(1)

14.2.2 Analysis of FAEE in Hair

291

(4)

14.2.2.1 Sample Pretreatment, Decontamination, and Isolation of External Lipids

293

(1)

14.2.2.2 Hair Extraction

293

(1)

14.2.2.3 Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction (HS-SPME)

294

(1)

14.2.2.4 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)

294

(1)

14.2.3 Incorporation and Elimination of FAEE in Hair

295

(3)

14.2.4 FAEE Concentrations in Hair and Drinking Behavior

298

(4)

14.2.4.1 Teetotalers

298

(1)

14.2.4.2 Moderate Social Drinkers

299

(1)

14.2.4.3 Patients in Alcohol Withdrawal Treatment

299

(1)

14.2.4.4 Death Cases

300

(1)

14.2.4.5 Cutoff Values

301

(1)

14.2.4.6 Relative FAEE Concentrations with Squalene as Natural Reference Substance

302

(1)

14.2.4.7 Pubic, Axillary, Beard, and Body Hair

302

(1)

14.2.5 Practical Applications

302

(1)

14.3 Ethylglucuronide (EtG)

303

(7)

14.3.1 Formation, Distribution, and Elimination of EtG in Human Organism

303

(2)

14.3.2 Analysis of EtG in Hair

305

(3)

14.3.3 EtG Concentrations in Hair and Drinking Behavior

308

(2)

14.4 Combined Use of FAEE and EtG

310

(1)

14.5 Benzoylecgonine Ethyl Ester (Cocaethylene, BE-Et)

311

(2)

14.6 Further Possibilities

313

(4)

14.6.1 1-Methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline

313

(2)

14.6.2 Acetaldehyde-Modified Hair Proteins

315

(1)

14.6.3 Other Minor Metabolites of Ethanol

315

(1)

14.6.4 Indirect Alcohol Markers

316

(1)

14.7 Conclusions

317

(1)

References

317

(8)

Chapter 15 Workplace Drug Testing Using Hair Samples

325

(1)

Thomas Cairns, Michael Schaffer, and Virginia Hill

15.1 Introduction

325

(1)

15.2 Sample Collection

326

(1)

15.3 Screening Procedures

327

(3)

15.4 Sample Preparation: Washing and Extraction Methods

330

(6)

15.4.1 Washing Methods for Removal of External Drug from Hair Samples

330

(3)

15.4.2 Extraction of Drug from Hair Samples Prior to Confirmation by MS Procedures

333

(1)

15.4.3 Impact of Sample Preparation Methods on Results, Conclusions, and Interpretations in Hair Analysis

334

(2)

15.4.3.1 Effects of Cosmetic Treatments on Hair Drug Content

334

(1)

15.4.3.2 Hair Testing and Claims of Racial or Color Bias

334

(2)

15.5 Confirmation by Mass Spectrometry

336

(1)

15.5.1 Criteria for a Positive Cocaine Sample

336

(1)

15.5.2 Criteria for a Positive Opiate Sample

336

(1)

15.5.3 Criteria for Positive Amphetamine, PCP, or Marijuana

337

(1)

15.6 Testing Body Hair Samples in Workplace Testing

337

(3)

15.7 Conclusion

340

(1)

References

340

(3)

Chapter 16 Metals

343

(28)

Jean-Pierre Goullé

16.1 Introduction

344

(1)

16.2 Hair Metal Incorporation

344

(2)

16.3 Hair Washing Procedure and Sample Preparation

346

(1)

16.4 Hair Elements Analytical Methods

346

(1)

16.5 Metal Hair Reference Values

347

(1)

16.6 Hair Metal Analysis Interpretation

348

(2)

16.7 Hair Metal Analysis Results

350

(2)

16.7.1 Influence of Gender, Age, and Smoking Habits

350

(1)

16.7.2 Influence of Environmental Exposure

351

(1)

16.7.3 Influence of Occupational Exposure

351

(1)

16.7.4 Rare Earth Elements

351

(1)

16.7.5 Influence of Metal Implants

352

(1)

16.7.6 Influence of Various Diseases

352

(1)

16.7.7 Oligo-Element Status

352

(1)

16.8 Metal Hair Certified Reference Material

352

(1)

16.9 Elements

353

(9)

16.9.1 Essential and Other Elements

353

(1)

16.9.2 Toxic Elements

353

(9)

16.9.2.1 Aluminum

353

(1)

16.9.2.2 Antimony

353

(1)

16.9.2.3 Silver

354

(1)

16.9.2.4 Cadmium

354

(1)

16.9.2.5 Chromium

354

(1)

16.9.2.6 Germanium

354

(1)

16.9.2.7 Manganese

355

(1)

16.9.2.8 Nickel

355

(1)

16.9.2.9 Uranium

355

(1)

16.9.2.10 Cobalt, Tantale, and Tungsten

356

(1)

16.9.2.11 Lead

356

(1)

16.9.2.11.1 Lead Isotopes

357

(1)

16.9.2.12 Arsenic and Thallium

357

(1)

16.9.2.12.1 Arsenic

357

(1)

16.9.2.12.2 Thallium

359

(1)

16.9.2.13 Mercury

360

(1)

16.9.2.13.1 Elemental Mercury

360

(1)

16.9.2.13.2 Inorganic Mercury

360

(1)

16.9.2.13.3 Organic Mercury

361

(1)

16.9.2.13.4 Mercury Speciation

362

(1)

16.10 Conclusion

362

(1)

Acknowledgments

362

(1)

References

362

(9)

Index

371

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Analytical And Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair

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