Animal Structure and Function

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ISBN: 9780534397487 | 0534397484
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Copyright: 1/8/2003

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PRINCIPLES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

How Plants and Animals Work

On High-Flying Geese and Edelweiss

488

(2)

Levels of Structural Organization

490

(2)

From Cells to Multicelled Organisms

490

(1)

Growth Versus Development

490

(1)

Structural Organization Has a History

490

(1)

The Body's Internal Environment

491

(1)

How Do Parts Contribute to the Whole?

491

(1)

Connections: The Nature of Adaptation

492

(2)

Defining Adaptation

492

(1)

Salt-Tolerant Tomatoes

492

(1)

No Polar Bears in the Desert

492

(1)

Adaptation to What?

493

(1)

Mechanisms of Homeostasis in Animals

494

(2)

Negative Feedback

494

(1)

Positive Feedback

495

(1)

Does the Concept of Homeostasis Apply to Plants?

496

(2)

Walling Off Threats

496

(1)

Sand, Wind, and the Yellow Bush Lupine

497

(1)

About Rhythmic Leaf Folding

497

(1)

Communication Among Cells, Tissues, and Organs

498

(2)

Signal Reception, Transduction, and Response

498

(1)

Communication in the Plant Body

498

(1)

Communication in the Animal Body

499

(1)

Connections: Recurring Challenges to Survival

500

(68)

Constraints on Gas Exchange

500

(1)

Requirements for Internal Transport

500

(1)

Maintaining a Solute-Water Balance

501

(1)

Requirements for Integration and Control

501

(1)

On Variations in Resources and Threats

501

(65)

VI ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Animal Tissues and Organ Systems

Meerkats, Humans, It's All the Same

566

(2)

Epithelial Tissue

568

(2)

General Characteristics

568

(1)

Cell-to-Cell Contacts

568

(1)

Glandular Epithelium and Glands

569

(1)

Connective Tissue

570

(2)

Soft Connective Tissues

570

(1)

Specialized Connective Tissues

570

(2)

Muscle Tissue

572

(1)

Nervous Tissue

573

(1)

Focus on Science: Frontiers in Tissue Research

573

(1)

Organ Systems

574

(6)

Overview of Major Organ Systems

574

(1)

Tissue and Organ Formation

575

(3)

Integration and Control: Nervous Systems

Why Crack the System?

578

(2)

Neurons---The Communication Specialists

580

(2)

Functional Zones of a Neuron

580

(1)

What Is a ``Resting'' Neuron?

580

(1)

Gradients Required for Action Potentials

580

(2)

How Are Action Potentials Triggered and Propagated?

582

(2)

Approaching Threshold

582

(1)

An All-or-Nothing Spike

582

(1)

The Direction of Propagation

583

(1)

Chemical Synapses

584

(2)

A Smorgasbord of Signals

584

(1)

Synaptic Integration

585

(1)

How Is Neurotransmitter Removed From the Synaptic Cleft?

585

(1)

Paths of Information Flow

586

(2)

Blocks and Cables of Neurons

586

(1)

Reflex Arcs

586

(2)

Invertebrate Nervous Systems

588

(2)

Regarding the Nerve Net

588

(1)

On the Importance of Having a Head

588

(2)

Vertebrate Nervous Systems---An Overview

590

(2)

Evolution of the Spinal Cord and Brain

590

(1)

The System's Functional Divisions

590

(2)

What Are the Major Expressways?

592

(2)

Peripheral Nervous System

592

(1)

Somatic and Autonomic Subdivisions

592

(1)

Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Nerves

592

(1)

Spinal Cord

593

(1)

The Vertebrate Brain

594

(2)

Hindbrain

594

(1)

Midbrain

594

(1)

Evolution of the Forebrain

594

(1)

Reticular Formation

595

(1)

Protection at the Blood-Brain Barrier

595

(1)

The Human Cerebrum

596

(2)

Functional Divisions of the Cerebral Cortex

596

(1)

Connections With the Limbic System

597

(1)

Focus on Science: Sperry's Split-Brain Experiments

598

(1)

How Are Memories Tucked Away?

599

(1)

Connections: Reflections on the Not-Quite-Complete Teen Brain

600

(2)

Focus on Health: Drugging the Brain

602

(6)

Sensory Reception

Different Strokes for Different Folks

606

(2)

Overview of Sensory Pathways

608

(2)

Somatic Sensations

610

(2)

Receptors Near the Body Surface

610

(1)

Muscle Sense

610

(1)

What Is Pain?

610

(1)

Referred Pain

611

(1)

Chemical Senses

612

(1)

Sense of Balance

613

(1)

Sense of Hearing

614

(2)

Properties of Sound

614

(1)

Evolution of the Vertebrate Ear

614

(2)

Sense of Vision

616

(2)

What Are the Requirements for Vision?

616

(1)

A Sampling of Invertebrate Eyes

616

(2)

Structure and Function of Vertebrate Eyes

618

(2)

The Eye's Structure

618

(1)

Visual Accommodation

619

(1)

Case Study---From Signaling to Visual Perception

620

(2)

How Is the Retina Organized?

620

(1)

Neuronal Responses to Light

620

(2)

Focus on Health: Disorders of the Human Eye

622

(6)

Integration and Control: Endocrine Systems

Hormone Jamboree

626

(2)

The Endocrine System

628

(2)

Hormones and Other Signaling Molecules

628

(1)

Discovery of Hormones and Their Sources

628

(2)

Signaling Mechanisms

630

(2)

The Nature of Hormonal Action

630

(1)

Characteristics of Steroid Hormones

630

(1)

Characteristics of Peptide Hormones

631

(1)

The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

632

(2)

Posterior Lobe Secretions

632

(1)

Anterior Lobe Secretions

632

(2)

Focus on Health: Abnormal Pituitary Outputs

634

(1)

Sources and Effects of Other Hormones

635

(1)

Feedback Control of Hormonal Secretions

636

(2)

Negative Feedback From the Adrenal Cortex

636

(1)

Local Feedback in the Adrenal Medulla

636

(1)

Cases of Skewed Feedback From the Thyroid

636

(1)

Feedback Control of the Gonads

637

(1)

Direct Responses to Chemical Changes

638

(2)

Secretions from Parathyroid Glands

638

(1)

Effects of Local Signaling Molecules

638

(1)

Secretions from Pancreatic Islets

638

(2)

Hormones and the External Environment

640

(6)

Daylength and the Pineal Gland

640

(1)

Thyroid Function and Frog Habitats

640

(1)

Comparative Look at a Few Invertebrates

641

(3)

Protection, Support, and Movement

Of Men, Women, and Polar Huskies

644

(2)

Evolution of Vertebrate Skin

646

(2)

Focus on Health: Sunlight and Skin

648

(1)

The Vitamin Connection

648

(1)

Suntans and Shoe-Leather Skin

648

(1)

Sunlight and the Front Line of Defense

648

(1)

Types of Skeletons

649

(1)

Operating Principles for Skeletons

649

(1)

Examples From the Invertebrates

649

(1)

Connections: Evolution of the Vertebrate Skeleton

650

(2)

A Closer Look at Bones and Joints

652

(2)

Bone Formation and Remodeling

652

(1)

Where Bones Meet---Skeletal Joints

652

(1)

Bones and the Blood Level of Calcium

653

(1)

Skeletal--Muscular Systems

654

(2)

How Do Muscles and Bones Interact?

654

(1)

Human Skeletal-Muscular System

655

(1)

How Does Skeletal Muscle Contract?

656

(2)

What Controls Contraction?

658

(1)

Energy For Contraction

659

(1)

Properties of Whole Muscles

660

(1)

Muscle Tension

660

(1)

What Is Muscle Fatigue?

660

(1)

What Are Muscular Dystrophies?

660

(1)

Muscles, Exercise, and Aging

661

(1)

Focus on Health: A Bad Case of Tetanic Contraction

661

(5)

Circulation

Heartworks

664

(2)

Connections: Evolution of Circulatory Systems

666

(2)

From Structure to Function

666

(1)

Evolution of Vertebrate Circulation

667

(1)

Links With the Lymphatic System

667

(1)

Characteristics of Blood

668

(2)

Functions of Blood

668

(1)

Blood Volume and Composition

668

(2)

Focus on Health: Blood Disorders

670

(1)

Blood Transfusion and Typing

670

(2)

Concerning Agglutination

670

(1)

ABO Blood Typing

671

(1)

Rh Blood Typing

671

(1)

Human Cardiovascular System

672

(2)

The Heart Is a Lonely Pumper

674

(2)

Cardiac Cycle

674

(1)

Cardiac Muscle Contraction

675

(1)

Blood Pressure in the Cardiovascular System

676

(2)

Arterial Blood Pressure

676

(1)

How Can Arterioles Resist Flow?

677

(1)

Controlling Mean Arterial Blood Pressure

677

(1)

From Capillary Beds Back to the Heart

678

(2)

Capillary Function

678

(1)

Venous Pressure

679

(1)

Focus on Health: Cardiovascular Disorders

680

(2)

Hemostasis

682

(1)

Lymphatic System

682

(6)

Lymph Vascular System

682

(1)

Lymphoid Organs and Tissues

682

(4)

Immunity

Russian Roulette, Immunological Style

686

(2)

Three Lines of Defense

688

(1)

Surface Barriers to Invasion

688

(1)

Nonspecific and Specific Responses

688

(1)

Complement Proteins

689

(1)

Inflammation

690

(2)

The Roles of Phagocytes and Their Kin

690

(1)

The Inflammatory Response

690

(2)

Overview of the Immune System

692

(2)

Defining Features

692

(1)

The Key Defenders

692

(1)

The Main Targets

692

(1)

Control of Immune Responses

693

(1)

How Lymphocytes Form and Do Battle

694

(2)

B and T Cell Formation

694

(1)

Lymphocyte Battlegrounds

695

(1)

Antibody-Mediated Response

696

(2)

The Roles of Antibodies

696

(1)

Classes of Immunoglobulins

696

(2)

Cell-Mediated Response

698

(1)

Focus on Science: Cancer and Immunotherapy

699

(1)

Monoclonal Antibodies

699

(1)

Multiplying the Tumor Killers

699

(1)

Therapeutic Vaccines

699

(1)

Defenses Enhanced, Misdirected, or Compromised

700

(2)

Immunization

700

(1)

Allergies

700

(1)

Autoimmune Disorders

701

(1)

Deficient Immune Responses

701

(1)

Focus on Health: AIDS---The Immune System Compromised

702

(6)

Characteristics of AIDS

702

(1)

How HIV Replicates

702

(1)

A Titanic Struggle Begins

702

(1)

How HIV Is Transmitted

702

(1)

On Drug Treatments and Vaccines

703

(3)

Respiration

Of Lungs and Leatherbacks

706

(2)

The Nature of Respiration

708

(1)

The Basis of Gas Exchange

708

(1)

Which Factors Influence Gas Exchange?

708

(1)

Surface-to-Volume Ratio

708

(1)

Ventilation

708

(1)

Transport Pigments

708

(1)

Invertebrate Respiration

709

(1)

Vertebrate Respiration

710

(2)

Gills of Fishes and Amphibians

710

(1)

Evolution of Paired Lungs

710

(2)

Human Respiratory System

712

(2)

What Are the System's Functions?

712

(1)

From Airways Into the Lungs

713

(1)

Cyclic Reversals in Air Pressure Gradients

714

(2)

The Respiratory Cycle

714

(1)

Lung Volumes

715

(1)

Gas Exchange and Transport

716

(2)

Exchanges at the Respiratory Membrane

716

(1)

Oxygen Transport

716

(1)

Carbon Dioxide Transport

716

(1)

How To Match Air Flow With Blood Flow

717

(1)

Focus on Health: When the Lungs Break Down

718

(2)

Bronchitis

718

(1)

Emphysema

718

(1)

Effects of Smoking

718

(2)

High Climbers and Deep Divers

720

(6)

Respiration at High Altitudes

720

(1)

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

720

(1)

Respiration in Deep Water

720

(4)

Digestion and Human Nutrition

Lose It---And It Finds Its Way Back

724

(2)

The Nature of Digestive Systems

726

(2)

Incomplete and Complete Systems

726

(1)

Correlations With Feeding Behavior

726

(2)

Visual Overview of the Human Digestive System

728

(1)

Into the Mouth, Down the Tube

729

(1)

Digestion in the Stomach and Small Intestine

730

(2)

The Stomach

730

(1)

The Small Intestine

730

(1)

The Role of Bile in Fat Digestion

731

(1)

Controls Over Digestion

731

(1)

Absorption From the Small Intestine

732

(2)

Structure Speaks Volumes About Function

732

(1)

What Are the Absorption Mechanisms?

733

(1)

Disposition of Absorbed Organic Compounds

734

(1)

The Large Intestine

735

(1)

Human Nutritional Requirements

736

(2)

A Carbohydrate--Insulin Connection

737

(1)

So What Do We Eat?

737

(1)

Vitamins and Minerals

738

(2)

Focus on Science: Weighty Questions, Tantalizing Answers

740

(6)

The Internal Environment

Tale of the Desert Rat

744

(2)

Urinary System of Mammals

746

(2)

The Challenge---Shifts in Extracellular Fluid

746

(1)

Water Gains and Losses

746

(1)

Solute Gains and Losses

746

(1)

Components of the Urinary System

747

(1)

Nephrons--Functional Units of Kidneys

747

(1)

Urine Formation

748

(2)

Factors Influencing Filtration

748

(1)

Reabsorption of Water and Sodium

749

(1)

Reabsorption Mechanism

749

(1)

Hormone-Induced Adjustments

749

(1)

Thirst Behavior

749

(1)

Focus on Health: When Kidneys Break Down

750

(1)

The Body's Acid-Base Balance

750

(1)

On Fish, Frogs, and Kangaroo Rats

751

(1)

How Are Core Temperatures Maintained?

752

(2)

Heat Gains and Heat Losses

752

(1)

Ectotherms, Endotherms, and In-Betweens

752

(2)

Temperature Regulation In Mammals

754

(6)

Responses to Heat Stress

754

(1)

Fever

754

(1)

Responses to Cold Stress

755

(3)

Principles of Reproduction and Development

From Frog to Frog and Other Mysteries

758

(2)

The Beginning: Reproductive Modes

760

(2)

Sexual Versus Asexual Reproduction

760

(1)

Costs and Benefits of Sexual Reproduction

760

(2)

Stages of Development---An Overview

762

(2)

Early Marching Orders

764

(2)

Information in the Egg Cytoplasm

764

(1)

Cleavage---The Start of Multicellularity

764

(1)

Cleavage Patterns

765

(1)

How Do Specialized Tissues and Organs Form?

766

(2)

Cell Differentiation

766

(1)

Morphogenesis

767

(1)

Pattern Formation

768

(2)

Embryonic Signals in Pattern Formation

768

(1)

A Theory of Pattern Formation

768

(1)

Evolutionary Constraints on Development

769

(1)

Focus on Science: To Know A Fly

770

(2)

Why Do Animals Age?

772

(1)

The Programmed Life Span Hypothesis

772

(1)

The Cumulative Assaults Hypothesis

772

(1)

Connections: Death in the Open

773

(5)

Human Reproduction and Development

Sex and the Mammalian Heritage

776

(2)

Reproductive System of Human Males

778

(2)

Where Sperm Form

778

(1)

Where Semen Forms

778

(1)

Cancers of the Prostate and Testis

779

(1)

Male Reproductive Function

780

(2)

Sperm Formation

780

(1)

Hormonal Controls

780

(2)

Reproductive System of Human Females

782

(2)

The Reproductive Organs

782

(1)

Overview of the Menstrual Cycle

782

(2)

Female Reproductive Function

784

(2)

Cyclic Changes in the Ovary

784

(1)

Cyclic Changes in the Uterus

785

(1)

Visual Summary of the Menstrual Cycle

786

(1)

Pregnancy Happens

787

(1)

Sexual Intercourse

787

(1)

Fertilization

787

(1)

Formation of the Early Embryo

788

(2)

Cleavage and Implantation

788

(1)

Extraembryonic Membranes

789

(1)

Emergence of the Vertebrate Body Plan

790

(1)

Why Is The Placenta So Important?

791

(1)

Emergence of Distinctly Human Features

792

(2)

Focus on Health: Mother as Provider, Protector, Potential Threat

794

(2)

From Birth Onward

796

(2)

Giving Birth

796

(1)

Nourishing the Newborn

796

(1)

Regarding Breast Cancer

797

(1)

Postnatal Development

797

(1)

Focus on Bioethics: Control of Human Fertility

798

(1)

Birth Control Options

798

(2)

Focus on Health: Sexually Transmitted Diseases

800

(2)

Focus on Bioethics: To Seek or End Pregnancy

802

Appendix I Classification System

Appendix II Units of Measure

Appendix III Answers to Self-Quizzes

Glossary

Credits and Acknowledgments

Subject Index

Index of Applications

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Animal Structure and Function

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Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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Summary

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