The Art of Sound Reproduction

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ISBN: 9780240515120 | 0240515129
Cover: Nonspecific Binding
Copyright: 3/5/1998

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Designed to make life a little easier by providing all the theoretical background necessary to understand sound reproduction, backed up with practical examples. Specialist terms - both musical and physical - are defined as they occur and plain English is used throughout. Analog and digital audio are considered as alternatives, and the advantages of both are stressed. audio is only as good as the transducers employed, and consequently microphone and loudspeaker technology also feature heavily - making this the most comprehensive, up-to-date text currently available on all aspects of sound reproduction.

Preface

xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction

(20)

1.1 A short history

(7)

1.2 Types of reproduction

(4)

1.3 Sound systems

(2)

1.4 Portable consumer equipment

(1)

1.5 Fixed consumer equipment

(2)

1.6 High-end hi-fi

(1)

1.7 Public address

(2)

1.8 Multitrack recording

(1)

1.9 Sound radio

(2)

1.10 Film and television sound

(1)

References

(1)

Chapter 2 Audio basics

(53)

2.1 Periodic and aperiodic signals

(1)

2.2 Frequency response and linearity

(3)

2.3 The sine wave

(2)

2.4 Root mean square measurements

(2)

2.5 The deciBel

(4)

2.6 Audio level metering

(2)

2.7 Vectors

(1)

2.8 Phase angle and power factor

(1)

2.9 Audio cabling

(3)

2.10 Moving masses

(3)

2.11 Introduction to digital processes

(1)

2.12 Logic elements

(2)

2.13 Storage elements

(2)

2.14 Binary adding

(1)

2.15 Gain control by multiplication

(3)

2.16 Transforms

(4)

2.17 The Fourier transform

(9)

2.18 The discrete cosine transform (DCT)

(2)

2.19 The wavelet transform

(1)

2.20 Magnetism

(5)

2.21 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

(1)

2.22 Electrical safety

(1)

References

(2)

Chapter 3 Sound and psychoacoustics

(37)

3.1 What is sound?

(1)

3.2 The ear

(2)

3.3 The cochlea

(1)

3.4 Level and loudness

(2)

3.5 Frequency discrimination

(1)

3.6 Critical bands

(3)

3.7 Beats

(1)

3.8 Music and the ear

(3)

3.9 The sensation of pitch

(2)

3.10 The physics of sound

(1)

3.11 The speed of sound

(2)

3.12 Wavelength

(1)

3.13 The Doppler effect

(1)

3.14 The wave number, k

(1)

3.15 How sound is radiated

(2)

3.16 Proximity effect

(1)

3.17 Intensity and power

(1)

3.18 The inverse square law

(1)

3.19 Wave acoustics

(3)

3.20 Radiation into smaller solid angles

102

(4)

3.21 Refraction

106

(1)

3.22 Reflection, transmission and absorption

107

(2)

3.23 Reverberation

109

(1)

References

110

(1)

Chapter 4 Sources of sound

111

(28)

4.1 Producing sounds

111

(1)

4.2 Vibrating bars

111

(2)

4.3 Vibrating panels

113

(1)

4.4 Vibrating strings

114

(2)

4.5 Vibrating diaphragms

116

(1)

4.6 Using airflow

116

(2)

4.7 Resonators

118

(2)

4.8 The organ

120

(2)

4.9 Wind instrument principles

122

(2)

4.10 Wind instruments

124

(1)

4.11 Brass instruments

125

(1)

4.12 Stringed instruments

126

(2)

4.13 The pianoforte

128

(1)

4.14 Percussion instruments

128

(1)

4.15 Electrical and electronic instruments

129

(1)

4.16 The human voice

130

(4)

4.17 Non-musical sound sources

134

(1)

4.18 The sound of a piston engine

134

(2)

4.19 Vehicle noise

136

(1)

4.20 Aircraft noise

136

(1)

4.21 Helicopter noise

137

(1)

References

138

(1)

Chapter 5 Microphones

139

(20)

5.1 Introduction

139

(1)

5.2 Microphone principles

139

(7)

5.3 Microphone limitations

146

(2)

5.4 Microphone mechanisms

148

(2)

5.5 Electrodynamic microphones

150

(1)

5.6 Electrostatic microphones

151

(2)

5.7 Phantom power

153

(1)

5.8 Stands and suspensions

154

(3)

5.9 Wind noise

157

(1)

5.10 Radio microphones

157

(1)

References

158

(1)

Chapter 6 Loudspeakers and headphones

159

(35)

6.1 Loudspeaker concepts

159

(4)

6.2 Loudspeaker mechanisms

163

(2)

6.3 Directivity

165

(3)

6.4 The moving coil speaker

168

(2)

6.5 Magnets

170

(3)

6.6 Coils

173

(1)

6.7 Cones

174

(2)

6.8 Low-frequency reproduction

176

(3)

6.9 Crossover networks

179

(1)

6.10 Enclosures

180

(1)

6.11 Electrostatic loudspeakers

180

(4)

6.12 Power amplifiers

184

(3)

6.13 Speaker cables

187

(2)

6.14 Active loudspeakers

189

(2)

6.15 Headphones

191

(2)

References

193

(1)

Chapter 7 Stereophony

194

(25)

7.1 History of stereophony

194

(1)

7.2 Directionality in hearing

194

(4)

7.3 Hearing in reverberant conditions

198

(4)

7.4 The stereophonic illusion

202

(2)

7.5 Stereo microphones

204

(3)

7.6 Headphone stereo

207

(1)

7.7 Alternative microphone techniques

208

(1)

7.8 M-S stereo

209

(2)

7.9 Mono compatibility

211

(1)

7.10 Stereo metering

211

(2)

7.11 Surround sound

213

(3)

7.12 Microphone criteria for stereo

216

(1)

7.13 Loudspeaker criteria for stereo

216

(1)

References

217

(2)

Chapter 8 Digital audio signals

219

(82)

8.1 Introduction to digital audio

219

(2)

8.2 Binary

221

(3)

8.3 Conversion

224

(1)

8.4 Sampling and aliasing

224

(4)

8.5 Choice of sampling rate

228

(1)

8.6 Sampling clock jitter

228

(2)

8.7 Aperture effect

230

(2)

8.8 Quantizing

232

(2)

8.9 Quantizing error

234

(4)

8.10 Introduction to dither

238

(3)

8.11 Requantizing and digital dither

241

(3)

8.12 Dither techniques

244

(3)

8.12.1 Rectangular pdf dither

244

(2)

8.12.2 Triangular pdf dither

246

(1)

8.12.3 Gaussian pdf dither

247

(1)

8.13 Basic digital-to-analog conversion

247

(8)

8.14 Basic analog-to-digital conversion

255

(5)

8.15 Alternative converters

260

(3)

8.16 Oversampling

263

(6)

8.17 Oversampling without noise shaping

269

(1)

8.18 Noise shaping

270

(4)

8.19 Noise-shaping ADCs

274

(3)

8.20 A one-bit DAC

277

(2)

8.21 One-bit noise-shaping ADCs

279

(2)

8.22 Two's complement coding

281

(2)

8.23 Level in digital audio

283

(2)

8.24 The AES/EBU interface

285

(14)

References

299

(2)

Chapter 9 Analog audio recording

301

(43)

9.1 Introduction to analog recording

301

(1)

9.2 Tape recording

302

(3)

9.3 Magnetic tape

305

(2)

9.4 Heads

307

(3)

9.5 Biased recording

310

(3)

9.6 Cross-field bias

313

(1)

9.7 Pre-emphasis and equalization

314

(2)

9.8 Sources of noise

316

(2)

9.9 Head alignment

318

(2)

9.10 Capstan motors

320

(1)

9.11 Servo-controlled capstans

321

(2)

9.12 Brushless motors

323

(2)

9.13 Reel motors

325

(1)

9.14 Tension servos

326

(1)

9.15 The analog multitrack recorder

327

(2)

9.16 The Compact Cassette

329

(1)

9.17 Additional quality criteria in stereo

330

(2)

9.18 Analog noise reduction

332

(3)

9.19 Audio in analog VTRs

335

(1)

9.20 The vinyl disk

336

(2)

9.21 Vinyl disk players

338

(5)

References

343

(1)

Chapter 10 Digital recording

344

(53)

10.1 Introduction

344

(4)

10.2 Time compression

348

(3)

10.3 Replay synchronization

351

(1)

10.4 Practical digital recorders

351

(6)

10.5 Channel coding

357

(2)

10.6 Group codes

359

(2)

10.7 Error correction and concealment

361

(3)

10.8 Introduction to the Reed-Solomon codes

364

(3)

10.9 Modulo-n arithmetic

367

(1)

10.10 The Galois field

368

(2)

10.11 R-S calculations

370

(4)

10.12 Correction by erasure

374

(3)

10.13 Introduction to DAT

377

(7)

10.14 Half-inch and 8 mm rotary formats

384

(2)

10.15 Digital audio disk systems

386

(5)

10.16 Audio in digital VTRs

391

(4)

Appendix 10.1 Calculation of Reed-Solomon generator polynomials

395

(1)

References

396

(1)

Chapter 11 Optical disks in digital audio

397

(51)

11.1 Types of optical disk

397

(3)

11.2 CD and MD contrasted

400

(1)

11.3 CD and MD -- disk construction

401

(1)

11.4 Rejecting surface contamination

402

(2)

11.5 Playing optical disks

404

(3)

11.6 Focus and tracking system

407

(5)

11.7 Typical pickups

412

(1)

11.8 CD readout

413

(5)

11.9 How optical disks are made

418

(4)

11.10 How recordable MiniDiscs are made

422

(1)

11.11 Channel code of CD and MD

423

(9)

11.12 Error-correction strategy

432

(4)

11.13 Track layout of MD

436

(1)

11.14 Player structure

437

(10)

11.15 Sony mastering disk

447

(1)

References

447

(1)

Chapter 12 Audio editing

448

(16)

12.1 Introduction

448

(1)

12.2 Tape-cut editing

449

(4)

12.3 Editing on recording media

453

(1)

12.4 The structure of an editor

454

(1)

12.5 Timecode

455

(1)

12.6 Locating the edit point

455

(3)

12.7 Non-linear editing

458

(2)

12.8 Editing in DAT

460

(1)

12.9 Editing in open-reel digital recorders

461

(2)

References

463

(1)

Chapter 13 Audio signal processing

464

(55)

13.1 Introduction

464

(1)

13.2 Level control

465

(6)

13.3 Grouping

471

(2)

13.4 Automation

473

(2)

13.5 Dynamics

475

(4)

13.6 Equalization

479

(3)

13.7 Multitrack consoles

482

(4)

13.8 Console buses

486

(1)

13.9 The inline strip

487

(2)

13.10 Fader flip

489

(2)

13.11 Console operating modes

491

(1)

13.12 Solo

492

(1)

13.13 Ancillary functions

493

(1)

13.14 Stereo mixers

494

(1)

13.15 Effects

495

(2)

13.16 Introduction to audio compression

497

(4)

13.17 Non-uniform coding

501

(2)

13.18 Floating-point coding

503

(2)

13.19 Predictive coding

505

(2)

13.20 Sub-band coding

507

(4)

13.21 Transform coding

511

(2)

13.22 A simple sub-band coder

513

(1)

13.23 Compression formats

514

(1)

13.24 ISO MPEG compression

515

(2)

13.25 Compression artifacts

517

(1)

References

517

(2)

Chapter 14 Sound quality considerations

519

(24)

14.1 Introduction

519

(2)

14.2 Objective testing

521

(7)

14.3 Subjective testing

528

(5)

14.4 Digital audio quality

533

(6)

14.5 Digital audio interface quality

539

(2)

References

541

(2)

Index

543

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The Art of Sound Reproduction

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Table of Contents

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