Barrier Systems for Environmental Contaminant Containment And Treatment

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ISBN: 9780849340406 | 0849340403
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 10/31/2005

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Containment and permeable reactive barriers have come full circle as an acceptable environmental control technology during the past 30 years. As interest shifted back toward containment in the 1990s, the industry found itself relying largely on pre-1980s technology. Fortunately, in the past 10 years important advances have occurred in several areas of containment, most notably in the area of permeable barriers. A balanced presentation of what is known and not known, Barrier Systems for Contaminant Containment and Environmental Treatment provides a comprehensive report on the current state of the science and technology of waste containment.Comprehensive and easily read, this book is rich with discussions and references to literature. Setting the stage for how contaminants can get into the subsurface, the authors describe pathways and introduce the essential concepts of risk. They provide details on the current state of the art for performance prediction and clearly delineate the limitations in modeling specific situations. The book addresses the materials used in barriers, defines their properties, and explores how they perform in the field. It describes available technologies and addresses their applications to various types of barriers. Tackling perhaps the most challenging aspect of waste containment technology, the book includes two case studies that demonstrate the value of validating field performance.Subsurface containment and treatment barriers will continue to be a widely used environmental control technology in the years ahead. Representing the collective knowledge and efforts of leading experts from research, industry, and regulatory agencies, this book provides a valuable reference that helps to chart the way to successfully managing many contaminated sites.

Chapter 1 Damage and System Performance Prediction

(70)

Hilary I. Inyang and Steven J. Piet

1.1 Overview

(6)

1.2 Long-Term Performance Analysis Framework

(8)

1.2.1 Concepts and Analytical Framework

(3)

1.2.2 Types of Performance Prediction Approaches

(4)

1.2.2.1 Empirical Prediction Approaches

(1)

1.2.2.2 Semi-Empirical Prediction Approaches

(2)

1.2.2.3 Less Empirical (Theoretical) Modeling Approach

(1)

1.3 Relationship of Structural Failure to Functional Failure

(9)

1.3.1 Economic or Pseudo-Economic Criteria

(1)

1.3.2 Regulatory Criteria

(1)

1.3.3 Prescriptive Design Criteria

(1)

1.3.4 Risk Criteria

(2)

1.3.5 Demonstrating Compliance: The Safety Case Concept

(1)

1.3.6 Mixed Criteria

(1)

1.3.7 Qualitative and Indexing Analyses

(1)

1.4 Quantification of Long-Term Damage Scenarios, Events, and Mechanisms

(35)

1.4.1 Categories of Degradation Mechanisms

(13)

1.4.1.1 Slow Physico-Chemical and Biological Processes

(5)

1.4.1.2 Intrusive Events

(1)

1.4.1.3 Transient Events

(2)

1.4.1.4 Cyclical Stressing Mechanisms

(5)

1.4.2 Quantitative Linkage of Contaminant Release Source Terms to Risk Assessment and Compliance Limits

(5)

1.4.3 Frameworks for Assessment of Event Consequences and Connectivities Among Causes of Failure

(1)

1.4.3.1 Fault Trees

(1)

1.4.3.2 Event Trees

(1)

1.4.4 Estimation of Long-Term Failure Probabilities

(11)

1.4.4.1 System Failure Probability

(1)

1.4.4.2 Component Failure Probability

(3)

1.4.4.3 Random Resistance

(1)

1.4.4.4 Simplifications of Theory

(3)

1.4.4.5 The Multi-Dimensional Case

(2)

1.4.5 Component and System Failure in Containing Contaminants

(1)

1.4.6 Relating Probable Contaminant Concentrations to Risks

(5)

1.5 Use of Barrier Damage and Performance Models for Temporal Scaling of Monitoring and Maintenance Needs

(2)

1.5.1 Updating

(1)

1.5.2 Effect of Updating on System Management

(1)

1.6 Life-Cycle Decision Approach and Management

(1)

References

(9)

Chapter 2 Modeling of Fluid Transport through Barriers

(72)

Brent E. Sleep, Charles D. Shackelford, and Jack C. Parker

2.1 Overview

(1)

2.2 Caps

(18)

2.2.1 Features, Events, and Processes Affecting Performance of Caps

(3)

2.2.1.1 Hydrologic Cycle

(2)

2.2.1.2 Layers and Features

(1)

2.2.2 Current State of Practice for Modeling Performance of Caps

(11)

2.2.2.1 Water Balance Method

(6)

2.2.2.2 HELP

(1)

2.2.2.3 UNSAT-H

(1)

2.2.2.4 SoilCover

(1)

2.2.2.5 HYDRUS-2D

(1)

2.2.2.6 VADOSE/W

(1)

2.2.2.7 TOUGH2

(1)

2.2.2.8 FEHM

(1)

2.2.2.9 RAECOM

(1)

2.2.3 Modeling Limitations and Research Needs for Caps

(3)

2.2.3.1 Role of Modeling

(1)

2.2.3.2 Data Needs

(1)

2.2.3.3 Code Quality Assurance and Quality Control

(1)

2.2.3.4 Verification, Validation, and Calibration

(1)

2.2.4 Unresolved Modeling Challenges

(1)

2.2.4.1 Time-Varying Material Properties and Processes

(1)

2.2.4.2 Infiltration at Arid Sites

(1)

2.2.4.3 Role of Heterogeneities

(1)

2.3 PRBs

(20)

2.3.1 Features, Events, and Processes Affecting Performance of PRBs

(7)

2.3.1.1 Groundwater Hydraulics

(1)

2.3.1.2 Geochemical Processes

(6)

2.3.1.3 Reaction Kinetics

(1)

2.3.2 Impacts on Downgradient Biodegradation Processes

(3)

2.3.2.1 Enhancement of Geochemical Conditions Conducive to Anaerobic Biodegradation

(1)

2.3.2.2 Overall Contaminant Concentration Reduction

(1)

2.3.2.3 Production of Hydrogen

(1)

2.3.2.4 Electron Donor Production

100

(1)

2.3.2.5 Direct Addition of Dissolved Organic Carbon

100

(1)

2.3.3 PRB System Dynamics

101

(3)

2.3.4 Geochemical Modeling

104

(5)

2.3.4.1 Speciation Modeling

105

(1)

2.3.4.2 Reaction Path Modeling

106

(1)

2.3.4.3 Reactive Transport Modeling

107

(1)

2.3.4.4 Inverse Modeling

108

(1)

2.3.5 Modeling Limitations and Research Needs of PRBs

109

(1)

2.4 Walls and Floors

110

(18)

2.4.1 Vertical Barriers

110

(1)

2.4.2 Horizontal Barriers

110

(1)

2.4.3 Current State of Practice for Modeling Performance of Walls and Floors

111

(1)

2.4.4 Contaminant Transport Processes

112

(11)

2.4.4.1 Aqueous-Phase Transport

112

(5)

2.4.4.2 Coupled Solute Transport

117

(2)

2.4.4.3 Modeling Water Flow through Barriers

119

(1)

2.4.4.4 Analytical Models

120

(3)

2.4.5 Modeling Limitations and Research Needs of Walls and Floors

123

(5)

2.4.5.1 Input Parameters and Measurement Accuracy

123

(2)

2.4.5.2 Time-Varying Properties and Processes

125

(1)

2.4.5.3 Influence of Coupled Solute Transport

125

(1)

2.4.5.4 Membrane Behavior in Clay Soils

126

(2)

2.5 Complicating Factors

128

(4)

2.5.1 Constant Seepage Velocity Assumption

128

(1)

2.5.2 Constant Volumetric Water Content Assumption

128

(1)

2.5.3 Anion Exclusion and Effective Porosity

129

(1)

2.5.4 Nonlinear Sorption

129

(1)

2.5.5 Rate-Dependent Sorption

130

(1)

2.5.6 Anion Exchange

130

(1)

2.5.7 Complexation

131

(1)

2.5.8 Organic Contaminant Biodegradation

131

(1)

2.5.9 Temperature Effects

132

(1)

References

132

(11)

Chapter 3 Material Stability and Applications

143

(66)

Craig H. Benson and Stephan F. Dwyer

3.1 Overview

143

(10)

3.1.1 The Role of Barrier Material Mineralogy and Mix Composition on Performance

144

(3)

3.1.2 Approaches to Material Evaluation and Selection

147

(2)

3.1.3 Geosynthetics and their Durability in Barrier Systems

149

(4)

3.2 Material Performance Factors in Caps

153

(14)

3.2.1 Material Performance Factors in Composite Barriers

155

(5)

3.2.2 Material Performance Factors in Water Balance Designs

160

(3)

3.2.3 Coupling of Vegetation and Material Performance Factors

163

(4)

3.3 Material Performance Factors in PRBs

167

(24)

3.3.1 Approach to Selection of PRB Materials

168

(2)

3.3.2 Evaluation of Field Performance Using Pilot Testing

170

(2)

3.3.3 Effects of Hydraulic Considerations on Reactive Material Performance

172

(6)

3.3.4 Structural Stability Factors in Performance

178

(5)

3.3.5 Material Durability Factors

183

(4)

3.3.5.1 Effect of Mineral Precipitation on Porosity and Hydraulic Conductivity

185

(1)

3.3.5.2 Effect of Mineral Precipitation on Reactivity

186

(1)

3.3.6 Applications of Geochemical Models in Reaction Tracking

187

(4)

3.4 Material Performance Factors in Cutoff Walls

191

(10)

3.4.1 In Situ Hydraulic Conductivity

193

(3)

3.4.2 Design Configuration

196

(2)

3.4.3 Geosynthetics in Vertical Cutoff Walls

198

(1)

3.4.4 Permeant Interaction Effects

199

(2)

References

201

(8)

Chapter 4 Airborne and Surface Geophysical Method Verification

209

(78)

Ernest L. Maier

4.1 Geophysical Method Application and Use

209

(7)

4.1.1 Characterization and Geophysics

210

(2)

4.1.2 Performance Monitoring and Geophysics

212

(2)

4.1.3 Geophysical Methods for Site Characterization and Monitoring of Subsurface Processes

214

(2)

4.1.3.1 Seismic

214

(1)

4.1.3.2 Electrical and Electromagnetic

214

(1)

4.1.3.3 Natural Field and Magnetic

215

(1)

4.1.3.4 Remote Sensing

216

(1)

4.2 Specific Methods

216

(23)

4.2.1 Seismic Methods

216

(8)

4.2.1.1 Conventional and Advanced Ray and Waveform Tomography

220

(1)

4.2.1.2 Guided/Channel Waves

221

(1)

4.2.1.3 Scattered and Reflected Energy

221

(1)

4.2.1.4 Cross-Well/VSP/Single Well Imaging

222

(2)

4.2.1.5 Summary

224

(1)

4.2.2 Electrical and Electromagnetic Methods

224

(3)

4.2.3 Natural Field and Magnetic Methods

227

(1)

4.2.4 Airborne Geophysical Methods

228

(3)

4.2.5 State-of-the-Practice Remote Sensing Methods

231

(2)

4.2.5.1 Aerial Photography

232

(1)

4.2.5.2 Multi-Spectral Scanners

232

(1)

4.2.5.3 Thermal Scanners

233

(1)

4.2.6 State-of-the-Art Remote Sensing Technologies

233

(6)

4.2.6.1 Hyperspectral Imaging Sensors

234

(1)

4.2.6.2 LIDAR Systems

235

(1)

4.2.6.3 Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF)

236

(1)

4.2.6.4 Radar Systems

237

(1)

4.2.6.5 Fused Sensor Systems/Data Streams

238

(1)

4.3 PRBs

239

(7)

4.3.1 Requirements, Site Characterization, Design Verification, and Monitoring

239

(4)

4.3.1.1 Site Characterization

240

(1)

4.3.1.2 PRB Construction Verification

241

(1)

4.3.1.3 Short-Term Monitoring

242

(1)

4.3.1.4 Long-Term Monitoring

242

(1)

4.3.2 Case Histories

243

(3)

4.3.2.1 Electrical Imaging of PRB Construction and Installation (Kansas City, Missouri)

243

(2)

4.3.2.2 Cross-Hole GPR Investigations (Massachusetts Military Reservation, Massachusetts)

245

(1)

4.4 Vertical Barriers

246

(15)

4.4.1 Requirements, Site Characterization, Design Verification, and Monitoring

249

(5)

4.4.1.1 Design

249

(1)

4.4.1.2 Installation/Verification

249

(5)

4.4.1.3 Short-Term Monitoring

254

(1)

4.4.1.4 Long-Term Monitoring

254

(1)

4.4.2 Case Studies

254

(7)

4.4.2.1 Cross-Hole GPR

255

(4)

4.4.2.2 Seismic

259

(1)

4.4.2.3 ERT

260

(1)

4.5 Caps and Covers

261

(13)

4.5.1 Requirements, Site Characterization, Design Verification, and Monitoring

262

(1)

4.5.2 Case Histories

263

(11)

4.5.2.1 EMI and GPR

263

(4)

4.5.2.2 Apparent Conductivity Maps

267

(2)

4.5.2.3 Electromagnetic Radar for Monitoring Moisture Content

269

(3)

4.5.2.4 Aerial Photography

272

(1)

4.5.2.5 Multi-Spectral Scanners

273

(1)

4.5.2.6 Thermal Scanners

273

(1)

4.6.2.7 HIS Imagery

274

(1)

4.6 Summary

274

(4)

4.6.1 Primary Needs for Advancement

275

(1)

4.6.1.1 Integration

275

(1)

4.6.1.2 Processing and Interpretation

275

(1)

4.6.1.3 Code Development

276

(1)

4.6.1.4 Instrumentation

276

(1)

4.6.2 Future Developments

276

(2)

References

278

(9)

Chapter 5 Subsurface Barrier Verification

287

(66)

David J. Borns, Carol Eddy-Dilek, John D. Koutsandreas, and Lorne G. Everett

5.1 Overview

287

(1)

5.2 Goals

288

(1)

5.3 Verification Monitoring

289

(7)

5.3.1 Methods

292

(5)

5.3.1.1 Moisture Change Monitoring Methods

292

(2)

5.3.1.2 Moisture Sampling Methods

294

(1)

5.3.1.3 Vadose Zone Monitoring Considerations

295

(1)

5.4 Verification System Design

296

(1)

5.5 Moving from State of the Practice to State of the Art

297

(12)

5.5.1 System Approach

298

(2)

5.5.1.1 Links to Modeling and Prediction

298

(1)

5.5.1.2 Optimization

299

(1)

5.5.1.3 Decision and Uncertainty Analysis

299

(1)

5.5.2 Smart Structures

300

(7)

5.5.2.1 Long-Term, Post-Closure Radiation Monitoring Systems (LPRMS)

302

(2)

5.5.2.2 Environmental Systems Management. Analysis, and Reporting (E-SMART™) Network

304

(1)

5.5.2.3 Direct Push Technologies

305

(2)

5.5.2.4 Nanotechnology Sensors

307

(1)

5.5.3 Advanced Environmental Monitoring System (AEMS)

307

(1)

5.5.4 A New DOE Barrier Design Code

308

(1)

5.6 Drivers for Implementation of New Approaches

309

(1)

5.6.1 Costs

309

(1)

5.6.2 Enabling Desired End States

309

(1)

5.7 Covers

310

(11)

5.7.1 Moving from State of the Practice to State of the Art

310

(2)

5.7.1.1 Methods

310

(1)

5.7.1.2 Verification Measurement Systems

311

(1)

5.7.1.3 Barrier Cap Monitoring

311

(1)

5.7.2 Case History: Mixed Waste Landfill

312

(3)

5.7.2.1 Cover Infiltration Monitoring

313

(1)

5.7.2.2 Neutron Moisture Monitoring

313

(1)

5.7.2.3 Fiber Optics Distributed Temperature Moisture Monitoring

314

(1)

5.7.2.4 Shallow Vadose Zone Moisture Monitoring

314

(1)

5.7.3 Case History: Fernald On-Site Disposal Facility

315

(3)

5.7.4 Verification Needs

318

(3)

5.7.4.1 Optimization and Trend Analysis

319

(1)

5.7.4.2 Sensors and Other Hardware

320

(1)

5.8 PRBS

321

(11)

5.8.1 Regulatory Framework

324

(1)

5.8.2 Moving from State of the Practice to State of the Art

325

(4)

5.8.2.1 Flow Characterization and Monitoring

325

(2)

5.8.2.2 Verification of Geochemical Gradients and Zones

327

(2)

5.8.3 Case History: Subsurface Monitoring

329

(1)

5.8.4 Verification Needs

329

(3)

5.8.4.1 Spatial and Temporal Flow Monitoring Considerations

330

(1)

5.8.4.2 Geochemical and Hydrological Process Monitoring Considerations

331

(1)

5.8.4.3 Acoustic Wave Devices

331

(1)

5.9 Walls and Floors

332

(16)

5.9.1 Moving from State of the Practice to State of the Art

337

(4)

5.9.1.1 Neutron Well Logging

337

(1)

5.9.1.2 Perfluorocarbon Tracer (PFT) Monitoring/Verification

338

(3)

5.9.2 Case History: Colloidal Silica Demonstration

341

(2)

5.9.3 Case History: Barrier Monitoring at the Environmental Restoration Disposal Facility (ERDF)

343

(3)

5.9.3.1 Study Conclusions

345

(1)

5.9.3.2 Study Recommendations

345

(1)

5.9.4 Verification Needs

346

(2)

5.9.4.1 Adequacy of the Containment Region

347

(1)

5.9.4.2 Long-Term Performance of the Containment

347

(1)

5.10 Conclusions

348

(1)

References

349

(4)

Appendix A Workshop Panels

353

(4)

Panel 1 Prediction: Materials Stability and Application

353

(1)

Panel 2 Prediction: Barrier Performance Prediction

353

(1)

Panel 3 Prediction: Damage and System Performance Prediction

354

(1)

Panel 4 Verification: Airborne and Surface/Geophysical Methods

355

(1)

Panel 5 Verification: Subsurface-Based Methods

355

(2)

Index

357

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Barrier Systems for Environmental Contaminant Containment And Treatment

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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Barrier Systems for Environmental Contaminant Containment And Treatment

Summary

Table of Contents

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