The Basics of Social Research (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

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ISBN: 9780534630362 | 0534630367
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 2/20/2004

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Preface. Prologue. Part One: AN INTRODUCTION TO INQUIRY. 1. Human Inquiry and Science. 2. Paradigms, Theory, and Research. 3. The Ethics and Politics of Social Research. Part Two: THE STRUCTURING OF INQUIRY. 4. Research Design. 5. Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement. 6. Indexes, Scales, and Typologies. 7. The Logic of Sampling. Part Three: MODES OF OBSERVATION. 8. Experiments. 9. Survey Research. 10. Qualitative Field Research. 11. Unobtrusive Research. 12. Evaluation Research. Part Four: ANALYSIS OF DATA. 13. Qualitative Data Analysis. 14. Quantitative Data Analysis. 15. Reading and Writing Social Research. Glossary. Bibliography. Index.

Preface

xix

Part One AN INTRODUCTION TO INQUIRY

(83)

Human Inquiry and Science

(27)

An Opening Quandary

(1)

Introduction

(2)

Looking for Reality

(5)

Ordinary Human Inquiry

(1)

Tradition

(1)

Authority

(1)

Errors in Inquiry and Some Solutions

(2)

What's Really Real?

(2)

The Foundations of Social Science

(8)

Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief

(1)

Social Regularities

(2)

Aggregates, Not Individuals

(1)

A Variable Language

(4)

Some Dialectics of Social Research

(7)

Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation

(3)

Inductive and Deductive Theory

(1)

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

(2)

Pure and Applied Research

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

(1)

Main Points

(1)

Key Terms

(1)

Review Questions

(1)

Additional Readings

(1)

Multimedia Resources

(2)

Paradigms, Theory, and Research

(29)

An Opening Quandary

(1)

Introduction

(1)

Some Social Science Paradigms

(10)

Macrotheory and Microtheory

(1)

Early Positivism

(1)

Conflict Paradigm

(1)

Symbolic Interactionism

(1)

Ethnomethodology

(1)

Structural Functionalism

(1)

Feminist Paradigms

(1)

Rational Objectivity Reconsidered

(3)

Two Logical Systems Revisited

(8)

The Traditional Model of Science

(2)

Deduction and Induction Compared

(6)

Deductive Theory Construction

(3)

Getting Started

(1)

Constructing Your Theory

(1)

An Example of Deductive Theory: Distributive Justice

(2)

Inductive Theory Construction

(1)

An Example of Inductive Theory: Why Do People Smoke Marijuana?

(1)

The Links between Theory and Research

(1)

The Importance of Theory in the ``Real World''

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

(1)

Main Points

(1)

Key Terms

(1)

Review Questions

(1)

Additional Readings

(1)

Multimedia Resources

(1)

The Ethics and Politics of Social Research

(25)

An Opening Quandary

(1)

Introduction

(1)

Ethical Issues in Social Research

(11)

Voluntary Participation

(1)

No Harm to the Participants

(1)

Anonymity and Confidentiality

(3)

Deception

(1)

Analysis and Reporting

(1)

Institutional Review Boards

(2)

Professional Codes of Ethics

(1)

Two Ethical Controversies

(3)

Trouble in the Tearoom

(2)

Observing Human Obedience

(1)

The Politics of Social Research

(5)

Objectivity and Ideology

(3)

Politics with a Little ``p''

(1)

Politics in Perspective

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

(1)

Main Points

(1)

Key Terms

(1)

Review Questions

(1)

Additional Readings

(1)

Multimedia Resources

(1)

Part Two THE STRUCTURING OF INQUIRY

(141)

Research Design

(34)

Introduction

(1)

An Opening Quandary

(1)

Three Purposes of Research

(4)

Exploration

(2)

Description

(1)

Explanation

(1)

The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation

(2)

Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

(2)

False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

(1)

Necessary and Sufficient Causes

(1)

Units of Analysis

(9)

Individuals

(1)

Groups

(1)

Organizations

(1)

Social Interactions

(1)

Social Artifacts

(3)

Units of Analysis in Review

102

(1)

Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis: The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism

102

(2)

The Time Dimension

104

(5)

Cross-Sectional Studies

104

(1)

Longitudinal Studies

105

(2)

Approximating Longitudinal Studies

107

(1)

Examples of Research Strategies

108

(1)

How to Design a Research Project

109

(6)

Getting Started

111

(1)

Conceptualization

111

(1)

Choice of Research Method

112

(1)

Operationalization

112

(1)

Population and Sampling

112

(1)

Observations

113

(1)

Data Processing

113

(1)

Analysis

113

(1)

Application

114

(1)

Research Design in Review

114

(1)

The Research Proposal

115

(1)

Elements of a Research Proposal

115

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

116

(1)

Main Points

117

(1)

Key Terms

118

(1)

Review Questions

118

(1)

Additional Readings

119

(1)

Multimedia Resources

119

(1)

Answers to Units of Analysis Quiz, Review Questions #2

119

(1)

Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement

120

(34)

An Opening Quandary

121

(1)

Introduction

121

(1)

Measuring Anything That Exists

122

(3)

Conceptions, Concepts, and Reality

122

(2)

Conceptions as Constructs

124

(1)

Conceptualization

125

(7)

Indicators and Dimensions

125

(3)

The Interchangeability of Indicators

128

(1)

Real, Nominal, and Operational Definitions

128

(1)

Creating Conceptual Order

129

(1)

An Example of Conceptualization: The Concept of Anomie

130

(2)

Definitions in Descriptive and Explanatory Studies

132

(3)

Operationalization Choices

135

(9)

Range of Variation

135

(1)

Variations between the Extremes

136

(1)

A Note on Dimensions

137

(1)

Defining Variables and Attributes

137

(1)

Levels of Measurement

138

(4)

Single or Multiple Indicators

142

(1)

Some Illustrations of Operationalization Choices

143

(1)

Operationalization Goes On and On

144

(1)

Criteria of Measurement Quality

144

(6)

Precision and Accuracy

144

(1)

Reliability

145

(3)

Validity

148

(2)

Who Decides What's Valid?

150

(1)

Tension between Reliability and Validity

150

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

150

(1)

Main Points

151

(1)

Key Terms

152

(1)

Review Questions

152

(1)

Additional Readings

152

(1)

Multimedia Resources

153

(1)

Indexes, Scales, and Typologies

154

(29)

An Opening Quandary

155

(1)

Introduction

155

(4)

Indexes versus Scales

156

(3)

Index Construction

159

(13)

Item Selection

159

(1)

Examination of Empirical Relationships

160

(5)

Index Scoring

165

(2)

Handling Missing Data

167

(1)

Index Validation

168

(3)

The Status of Women: An Illustration of Index Construction

171

(1)

Scale Construction

172

(7)

Bogardus Social Distance Scale

172

(1)

Thurstone Scale

173

(1)

Likert Scale

174

(1)

Semantic Differential

175

(1)

Guttman Scale

175

(4)

Typologies

179

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

179

(1)

Main Points

180

(1)

Key Terms

181

(1)

Review Questions

181

(1)

Additional Readings

181

(1)

Multimedia Resources

182

(1)

The Logic of Sampling

183

(42)

An Opening Quandary

184

(1)

Introduction

184

(2)

A Brief History of Sampling

186

(2)

President Alf Landon

186

(1)

President Thomas E. Dewey

187

(1)

Two Types of Sampling Methods

188

(1)

Nonprobability Sampling

188

(4)

Reliance on Available Subjects

188

(1)

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

189

(1)

Snowball Sampling

190

(1)

Quota Sampling

190

(1)

Selecting Informants

191

(1)

The Theory and Logic of Probability Sampling

192

(14)

Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias

193

(2)

Representativeness and Probability of Selection

195

(1)

Random Selection

196

(1)

Probability Theory, Sampling Distributions, and Estimates of Sample Error

197

(9)

Populations and Sampling Frames

206

(2)

Review of Populations and Sampling Frames

208

(1)

Types of Sampling Designs

208

(7)

Simple Random Sampling

208

(2)

Systematic Sampling

210

(2)

Stratified Sampling

212

(1)

Implicit Stratification in Systematic Sampling

213

(1)

Illustration: Sampling University Students

214

(1)

Multistage Cluster Sampling

215

(7)

Multistage Designs and Sampling Error

217

(2)

Stratification in Multistage Cluster Sampling

219

(1)

Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS) Sampling

219

(1)

Disproportionate Sampling and Weighting

220

(2)

Probability Sampling in Review

222

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

222

(1)

Main Points

222

(1)

Key Terms

223

(1)

Review Questions

223

(1)

Additional Readings

224

(1)

Multimedia Resources

224

(1)

Part Three MODES OF OBSERVATION

225

(159)

Experiments

227

(23)

An Opening Quandary

228

(1)

Introduction

228

(1)

Topics Appropriate to Experiments

229

(1)

The Classical Experiment

229

(4)

Independent and Dependent Variables

230

(1)

Pretesting and Posttesting

230

(1)

Experimental and Control Groups

231

(1)

The Double-Blind Experiment

232

(1)

Selecting Subjects

233

(3)

Probability Sampling

233

(1)

Randomization

234

(1)

Matching

234

(1)

Matching or Randomization?

235

(1)

Variations on Experimental Design

236

(6)

Preexperimental Research Designs

236

(2)

Validity Issues in Experimental Research

238

(4)

An Illustration of Experimentation

242

(3)

Web-Based Experiments

245

(1)

``Natural'' Experiments

245

(2)

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Experimental Method

247

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

247

(1)

Main Points

248

(1)

Key Terms

248

(1)

Review Questions

248

(1)

Additional Readings

249

(1)

Multimedia Resources

249

(1)

Survey Research

250

(43)

An Opening Quandary

251

(1)

Introduction

252

(1)

Topics Appropriate for Survey Research

252

(1)

Guidelines for Asking Questions

253

(7)

Choose Appropriate Question Forms

254

(1)

Make Items Clear

255

(1)

Avoid Double-Barreled Questions

255

(1)

Respondents Must Be Competent to Answer

255

(2)

Respondents Must Be Willing to Answer

257

(1)

Questions Should Be Relevant

257

(1)

Short Items Are Best

258

(1)

Avoid Negative Items

258

(1)

Avoid Biased Items and Terms

258

(2)

Questionnaire Construction

260

(6)

General Questionnaire Format

260

(1)

Formats for Respondents

260

(1)

Contingency Questions

261

(1)

Matrix Questions

262

(1)

Ordering Items in a Questionnaire

263

(1)

Questionnaire Instructions

264

(1)

Pretesting the Questionnaire

265

(1)

A Sample Questionnaire

266

(1)

Self-Administered Questionnaires

266

(8)

Mail Distribution and Return

266

(4)

Monitoring Returns

270

(1)

Follow-up Mailings

271

(1)

Acceptable Response Rates

271

(1)

A Case Study

272

(2)

Interview Surveys

274

(4)

The Role of the Survey Interviewer

274

(1)

General Guidelines for Survey Interviewing

275

(2)

Coordination and Control

277

(1)

Telephone Surveys

278

(2)

Positive and Negative Factors

278

(2)

Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI)

280

(1)

New Technologies and Survey Research

280

(3)

Comparison of the Different Survey Methods

283

(1)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research

284

(2)

Secondary Analysis

286

(2)

A Quandary Revisited

288

(1)

Main Points

289

(1)

Key Terms

290

(1)

Review Questions

290

(1)

Additional Readings

290

(2)

Multimedia Resources

292

(1)

Qualitative Field Research

293

(33)

An Opening Quandary

294

(1)

Introduction

294

(1)

Topics Appropriate to Field Research

295

(3)

Special Considerations in Qualitative Field Research

298

(4)

The Various Roles of the Observer

298

(2)

Relations to Subjects

300

(2)

Some Qualitative Field Research Paradigms

302

(10)

Naturalism

302

(1)

Ethnomethodology

303

(1)

Grounded Theory

304

(2)

Case Studies and the Extended Case Method

306

(2)

Institutional Ethnography

308

(1)

Participatory Action Research

309

(3)

Conducting Qualitative Field Research

312

(8)

Preparing for the Field

312

(1)

Qualitative Interviewing

313

(3)

Focus Groups

316

(2)

Recording Observations

318

(2)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research

320

(2)

Validity

321

(1)

Reliability

322

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

322

(1)

Research Ethics in Qualitative Field Research

323

(1)

Main Points

323

(1)

Key Terms

324

(1)

Review Questions

324

(1)

Additional Readings

324

(1)

Multimedia Resources

325

(1)

Unobtrusive Research

326

(31)

An Opening Quandary

327

(1)

Introduction

327

(1)

Content Analysis

328

(11)

Topics Appropriate to Content Analysis

328

(1)

Sampling in Content Analysis

329

(4)

Coding in Content Analysis

333

(4)

An Illustration of Content Analysis

337

(1)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Content Analysis

338

(1)

Analyzing Existing Statistics

339

(7)

Durkheim's Study of Suicide

339

(2)

Consequences of Globalization

341

(1)

Units of Analysis

342

(1)

Problems of Validity

342

(1)

Problems of Reliability

343

(1)

Sources of Existing Statistics

343

(3)

Comparative and Historical Research

346

(8)

Examples of Comparative and Historical Research

347

(3)

Sources of Comparative and Historical Data

350

(1)

Analytical Techniques

351

(3)

A Quandary Revisited

354

(1)

Main Points

354

(1)

Key Terms

355

(1)

Review Questions

355

(1)

Additional Readings

355

(1)

Multimedia Resources

356

(1)

Evaluation Research

357

(27)

An Opening Quandary

358

(1)

Introduction

358

(2)

Topics Appropriate to Evaluation Research

360

(1)

Formulating the Problem: Issues of Measurement

361

(4)

Specifying Outcomes

362

(1)

Measuring Experimental Contexts

363

(1)

Specifying Interventions

363

(1)

Specifying the Population

363

(1)

New versus Existing Measures

364

(1)

Operationalizing Success/Failure

364

(1)

Types of Evaluation Research Designs

365

(14)

Experimental Designs

365

(1)

Quasi-Experimental Designs

366

(4)

Qualitative Evaluations

370

(1)

Logistical Problems

371

(2)

Some Ethical Issues

373

(1)

Use of Research Results

374

(5)

Social Indicators Research

379

(2)

The Death Penalty and Deterrence

380

(1)

Computer Simulation

381

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

381

(1)

Main Points

382

(1)

Key Terms

382

(1)

Review Questions

382

(1)

Additional Readings

383

(1)

Multimedia Resources

383

(1)

Part Four ANALYSIS OF DATA

384

(96)

Qualitative Data Analysis

386

(27)

An Opening Quandary

387

(1)

Introduction

387

(1)

Linking Theory and Analysis

388

(5)

Discovering Patterns

388

(1)

Grounded Theory Method

389

(2)

Semiotics

391

(2)

Conversation Analysis

393

(1)

Qualitative Data Processing

393

(6)

Coding

393

(4)

Memoing

397

(1)

Concept Mapping

398

(1)

Computer Programs for Qualitative Data

399

(10)

Leviticus as Seen through HyperResearch

400

(2)

Using NVivo to Understand Women Film Directors, by Sandrine Zerbib

402

(7)

The Qualitative Analysis of Quantitative Data

409

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

410

(1)

Main Points

410

(1)

Key Terms

411

(1)

Review Questions

411

(1)

Additional Readings

411

(1)

Multimedia Resources

412

(1)

Quantitative Data Analysis

413

(28)

An Opening Quandary

414

(1)

Introduction

414

(1)

Quantification of Data

415

(5)

Developing Code Categories

416

(2)

Codebook Construction

418

(1)

Data Entry

419

(1)

Univariate Analysis

420

(6)

Distributions

420

(1)

Central Tendency

421

(3)

Dispersion

424

(1)

Continuous and Discrete Variables

425

(1)

Detail versus Manageability

426

(1)

Subgroup Comparisons

426

(3)

``Collapsing'' Response Categories

426

(2)

Handling ``Don't Knows''

428

(1)

Numerical Descriptions in Qualitative Research

429

(1)

Bivariate Analysis

429

(6)

Percentaging a Table

431

(3)

Constructing and Reading Bivariate Tables

434

(1)

Introduction to Multivariate Analysis

435

(1)

Sociological Diagnostics

436

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

437

(2)

Main Points

439

(1)

Key Terms

439

(1)

Review Questions

439

(1)

Additional Readings

440

(1)

Multimedia Resources

440

(1)

Reading and Writing Social Research

441

(39)

An Opening Quandary

442

(1)

Introduction

442

(1)

Reading Social Research

442

(6)

Journals versus Books

442

(2)

Evaluation of Research Reports

444

(4)

Using the Internet Wisely

448

(7)

Some Useful Web Sites

448

(1)

Searching the Web

449

(1)

Evaluating the Quality of Internet Materials

450

(4)

Citing Internet Materials

454

(1)

Writing Social Research

455

(5)

Some Basic Considerations

455

(2)

Organization of the Report

457

(3)

Guidelines for Reporting Analyses

460

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

460

(1)

Main Points

461

(1)

Key Terms

462

(1)

Review Questions

462

(1)

Additional Readings

462

(1)

Multimedia Resources

463

(3)

Appendixes

A Using the Library

466

(8)

B Random Numbers

474

(2)

C Distribution of Chi Square

476

(2)

D Normal Curve Areas

478

(1)

E Estimated Sampling Error

479

(1)

Glossary

480

(11)

Bibliography

491

(12)

Index

503

(16)

Photo Credits

519

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The Basics of Social Research (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials