The Computer Image

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ISBN: 9780201422986 | 0201422980
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 10/1/1998

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Using multimedia techniques to illuminate concepts, this book and CD-ROM package provides a comprehensive overview of computer graphics, image processing, and computer vision. Readers will master concepts by manipulating or experimenting with a model and simultaneously viewing the changes on a screen. Programming examples are in C++.

Preface

xvii

(12)

Acknowledgements

xxix

(2)

Dedication

xxxi

1 The computer image -- an overview

(21)

1.1 The nature of a computer image

(4)

1.2 Synthesizing images or computer graphics

(8)

1.2.1 Computer graphics and its impact on popular culture and art

(2)

1.2.2 Computer graphics and its practitioners

(3)

General reading in computer graphics

(1)

1.3 Image processing -- an overview

(3)

General reading in image processing

(1)

1.4 Computer vision

(6)

General reading in computer vision

(1)

2 Representation and modelling of three-dimensional objects

(34)

2.1 Introduction

(4)

2.2 Polygonal representation of three-dimensional objects

(7)

2.2.1 Creating polygonal objects

(1)

2.2.2 Manual modelling of polygonal objects

(1)

2.2.3 Automatic generation of polygonal objects

(1)

2.2.4 Mathematical modelling of polygon objects

(1)

2.2.5 Generating polygon objects by sweeping

(2)

2.3 Representation of objects using bicubic parametric patch nets

(5)

2.3.1 Creating objects with bicubic parametric patch nets

(2)

2.4 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) representation of objects

(4)

2.5 Space subdivision techniques for object representation

(3)

2.5.1 Creating voxel objects

(1)

2.6 Representing objects with implicit functions

(2)

2.7 Rendering strategies and representations

(6)

2.7.1 Rendering polygon objects

(1)

2.7.2 Rendering a parametric patch net

(2)

2.7.3 Rendering a CSG description

(2)

2.7.4 Rendering a voxel description

(1)

2.7.5 Rendering implicit functions

(1)

2.8 Summary

(2)

Further reading

(1)

3 Basic realism -- lighting polygon objects

(19)

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 An overview of the rendering process

(2)

3.3 Rasterization of a polygon

(2)

3.4 Hidden surface removal

(3)

3.4.1 Culling

(1)

3.4.2 Z-buffer algorithm

(2)

3.5 Shading pixels

(8)

3.5.1 Local reflection models

(5)

3.5.2 Practical points

(1)

3.5.3 Light source considerations

(1)

3.6 Interpolative shading techniques

(2)

3.6.1 Gouraud shading

(1)

3.6.2 Phong shading

(1)

3.6.3 Renderer shading options

(1)

3.6.4 Bi-linear interpolation

(1)

Further reading

(1)

4 Increasing realism -- textures and shadows

(27)

4.1 Texture mapping -- what aspects of the object to modulate

(1)

4.2 Two-dimensional textures and three-dimensional objects

(7)

4.2.1 Polygon mesh texture mapping: two-part mapping

(3)

4.2.2 Two-dimensional texture domain techniques: mapping onto bicubic parametric patches

(1)

4.3 Three-dimensional texture domain techniques

(2)

4.4 Bump mapping

(2)

4.5 Environment mapping

(2)

4.6 Anti-aliasing and texture mapping

(3)

4.7 Interactive techniques in texture mapping

(2)

4.8 Adding shadows in rendering

(4)

4.8.1 Computer graphics and shadows

(1)

4.8.2 Shadow mapping or the shadow Z-buffer

(1)

4.8.3 Anti-aliasing and the shadow Z-buffer

(1)

Further reading

100

(2)

5 Increasing realism -- the evolution of local reflection models

102

(17)

5.1 Perfect reflection models

105

(1)

5.2 Perfect diffuse -- empirically spread specular (Phong)

106

(1)

5.3 Physically based specular reflection (Blinn, Cook and Torrance)

106

(8)

5.3.1 Modelling the micro-geometry of the surface

108

(1)

5.3.2 Shadowing and masking effects

109

(1)

5.3.3 Viewing geometry

109

(2)

5.3.4 Electromagnetic effects

111

(3)

5.4 Pre-computing BRDFs

114

(1)

5.5 Physically based diffuse component

115

(2)

5.6 Further reading

117

(2)

6 Increasing realism -- global illumination or following the light

119

(47)

6.1 The evolution of global illumination algorithms

123

(7)

6.1.1 Whitted ray tracing

124

(2)

6.1.2 Distributed ray tracing

126

(2)

6.1.3 Two-pass ray tracing

128

(1)

6.1.4 Radiosity

129

(1)

6.2 Towards L(DIS)*E

130

(4)

6.2.1 Extending radiosity

131

(1)

6.2.2 Path tracing

132

(1)

6.2.3 The RADIANCE renderer

133

(1)

6.3 Whitted ray tracing -- the details

134

(13)

6.3.1 Tracing rays -- initial considerations

135

(1)

6.3.2 Inclusion of a local reflection model

135

(1)

6.3.3 Shadows are easy

136

(1)

6.3.4 Hidden surface removal is easy

137

(1)

6.3.5 Using recursion to implement ray tracing

137

(3)

6.3.6 The adventures of seven rays -- a ray tracing study

140

(3)

6.3.7 Ray tracing polygon objects -- interpolation of a normal at an intersection point in a polygon

143

(1)

6.3.8 Bounding objects with simple shapes

144

(1)

6.3.9 Secondary data structures

145

(2)

6.4 Further developments in ray tracing illumination model

147

(6)

6.4.1 Distributed ray tracing

147

(2)

6.4.2 Generalizing the trace direction -- two-pass ray tracing

149

(3)

Further reading

152

(1)

6.5 Classical radiosity

153

(11)

6.5.1 Radiosity theory

155

(2)

6.5.2 Form factor determination

157

(4)

6.5.3 Increasing the accuracy

161

(1)

6.5.4 Seeing a partial solution -- progressive refinement

161

(3)

Further reading

164

(2)

7 Bicubics and image synthesis

166

(27)

7.1 Introduction

166

(3)

7.2 Bezier and the secret curves

169

(5)

7.3 From curves to surfaces

174

(3)

7.4 Modelling with Bezier patches

177

(5)

7.4.1 Joining Bezier curve segments

178

(1)

7.4.2 Joining Bezier surface patches

179

(2)

7.4.3 Modelling and interaction with Bezier patches

181

(1)

7.5 Patch CAGD example

182

(4)

7.6 Deriving a net of patches from an object -- surface fitting

186

(1)

7.7 Rendering parametric surfaces

186

(4)

7.7.1 Approximation to a surface patch using a polygon mesh

187

(3)

7.8 From patches to objects

190

(1)

7.9 Further reading

191

(2)

8 Defects in computer graphics images

193

(24)

8.1 Introduction -- the difficulty of categorization

193

(1)

8.2 Sampling and image synthesis

194

(6)

8.3 The ultimate -- filtering a continuous image

200

(1)

8.4 Supersampling -- the best filtering we can do

201

(1)

8.5 Sampling and algorithms

202

(2)

8.6 Non-uniform sampling -- some theoretical concepts

204

(4)

8.7 Comparative image study

208

(8)

8.7.1 Local reflection models

208

(1)

8.7.2 Texture and shadow mapping

209

(1)

8.7.3 Ray tracing

210

(1)

8.7.4 Radiosity

210

(6)

Further reading

216

(1)

9 Image processing for enhancement or basic processing in image space

217

(23)

9.1 Pixel processing

220

(14)

9.1.1 Intensity transformations

220

(1)

9.1.2 Intensity level slicing

221

(1)

9.1.3 Intensity level to colour -- pseudo-colour enhancement

222

(1)

9.1.4 Image histograms and their uses

223

(2)

9.1.5 Histogram equalization

225

(1)

9.1.6 Image subtraction

226

(2)

9.1.7 Image smoothing

228

(2)

9.1.8 Sharpening or detail enhancement

230

(1)

9.1.9 Colour and image processing

231

(3)

9.2 Transforming the position of pixels -- image warping

234

(5)

9.2.1 Forward mapping

234

(2)

9.2.2 Inverse mapping

236

(1)

9.2.3 Two-pass transforms

236

(2)

9.2.4 The bottleneck problem

238

(1)

Further reading

239

(1)

10 Edges and their detection

240

(22)

10.1 The origin and nature of edges

243

(1)

10.2 Edge detection

244

(11)

10.2.1 Edge detection using difference operators

245

(2)

10.2.2 Detecting edges of predefined orientation

247

(1)

10.2.3 Edge masks with `combined' properties

248

(5)

10.2.4 Edge linking or aggregation

253

(1)

10.2.5 Local edge linking

254

(1)

10.3 Global processing and the Hough transform

255

(3)

10.3.1 Hough transform -- brute force implementation

256

(1)

10.3.2 Hough transform -- O'Gorman and Clowes

257

(1)

10.3.3 Hough transform -- circles

258

(1)

10.4 Edges and segmentation -- explicit edge detection or boundary following

258

(3)

10.5 Further reading

261

(1)

11 Image transforms

262

(28)

11.1 The Fourier transform of images

263

(12)

11.1.1 Image processing and the Fourier domain

270

(2)

11.1.2 Low pass filters

272

(1)

11.1.3 High pass filters

273

(2)

11.2 Other Fourier domain filtering techniques

275

(4)

11.2.1 Inverse filtering or deconvolution

277

(2)

11.3 The Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT)

279

(1)

11.4 Image pyramids

280

(8)

11.4.1 Wavelet transform

282

(6)

11.5 Image transforms and basis matrices

288

(1)

Further reading

289

(1)

12 Image segmentation

290

(22)

12.1 Segmentation -- grey scale thresholding

293

(5)

12.1.1 Thresholding multi-band or colour images

295

(2)

12.1.2 Thresholding and approximate boundary information

297

(1)

12.2 Using pixel properties other than intensity -- texture-based segmentation

298

(9)

12.2.1 Texture segmentation -- Hurst coefficient

299

(1)

12.2.2 Texture segmentation -- co-occurrency matrices

300

(4)

12.2.3 Texture segmentation -- Fourier texture descriptors

304

(2)

12.2.4 Texture segmentation -- applying texture measures

306

(1)

12.3 Segmentation by region growing

307

(2)

12.3.1 Region growing

307

(1)

12.3.2 Region splitting and merging

308

(1)

12.4 Edges and segmentation

309

(1)

12.5 Case study

310

(1)

Further reading

311

(1)

13 Images and mathematical morphology

312

(12)

13.1 Binary image morphology

313

(8)

13.1.1 Binary dilation

313

(2)

13.1.2 Binary erosion

315

(1)

13.1.3 Combining dilation and erosion -- boundaries and contours

316

(1)

13.1.4 Combining dilation and erosion -- hit and miss transforms

316

(1)

13.1.5 Combining dilation and erosion -- opening and closing

317

(2)

13.1.6 Thickening and thinning

319

(2)

13.2 Grey scale morphology

321

(2)

13.2.1 Dilation and erosion

321

(1)

13.2.2 Combined operations

322

(1)

Further reading

323

(1)

14 Classical pattern recognition and image matching

324

(44)

14.1 Rigid image matching -- template matching

329

(2)

14.1.1 Rigid vs. flexible image matching

330

(1)

14.2 Statistical classifiers

331

(4)

14.3 Adaptive image matching or feature extraction strategies

335

(6)

14.3.1 Deformable templates

335

(4)

14.3.2 Active contour models or snakes

339

(2)

14.4 Trainable pattern recognizers -- neural nets or multi-layer perceptrons

341

(10)

14.4.1 Perceptron for two linearly separable pattern classes

343

(2)

14.4.2 Perceptron for n categories

345

(1)

14.4.3 MLP feed-forward neural nets

346

(3)

14.4.4 Back propagation algorithm

349

(2)

14.5 Image measurements

351

(11)

14.5.1 Boundary-based measurements and descriptions

352

(1)

14.5.2 Chain codes

353

(1)

14.5.3 Univariate functions of boundaries

354

(2)

14.5.4 Enclosing image segments

356

(3)

14.5.5 Region-based measurements and descriptions

359

(2)

14.5.6 Skeleton or medial axis transform

361

(1)

14.6 Decomposition of regions

362

(1)

14.7 Real-time strategies -- the recognition of handwriting

363

(3)

Further reading

366

(2)

15 Towards recognition, understanding and description of three-dimensional scenes

368

(38)

15.1 Using knowledge -- hypothesizing and testing

369

(9)

15.1.1 Using knowledge -- geometric matching

374

(2)

15.1.2 Using knowledge -- relational matching

376

(2)

15.2 Special representational models used in computer vision

378

(5)

15.2.1 View or aspect representation

379

(3)

15.2.2 Gaussian sphere

382

(1)

15.3 Example approaches -- systems dealing with two-dimensional data

383

(11)

15.3.1 Example 1: Interpretation of polygonal objects from wireframe projections -- vertex labelling

383

(4)

15.3.2 Example 2: Object recognition using Probabilistic Three-dimensional Interpretation of Component Aspects (OPTICA)

387

(4)

15.3.3 Example 3: Specular highlights as primitives

391

(3)

15.4 Example approaches -- systems dealing with range data

394

(11)

15.4.1 The nature of range data and possible strategies

396

(1)

15.4.2 Example 1: Use of surface curvature to categorize and segment surfaces

397

(3)

15.4.3 Example 2: A generic parts-based description of range data

400

(4)

15.4.4 Surface interpolation and representation

404

(1)

Further reading

405

(1)

16 Shape from x

406

(20)

16.1 Shape from shading

408

(8)

16.1.1 Gradient space

409

(2)

16.1.2 The reflectance map

411

(2)

16.1.3 Solving the problem

413

(2)

16.1.4 Problems with Horn's method

415

(1)

16.2 Shape from stereo

416

(9)

16.2.1 Correspondence establishment

417

(1)

16.2.2 Constraints used in establishing correspondence

418

(2)

16.2.3 Establishing correspondence -- intensity matching

420

(2)

16.2.4 Establishing correspondence -- structure matching

422

(1)

16.2.5 More elaborate approaches -- the MPG algorithm

423

(2)

Further reading

425

(1)

17 The moving computer image

426

(52)

17.1 The moving image in entertainment -- computer animation and morphing: introduction

426

(3)

17.2 A categorization and description of computer animation techniques

429

(22)

17.2.1 Rigid body animation

430

(5)

17.2.2 Articulated structure animation

435

(9)

17.2.3 Procedural animation

444

(5)

17.2.4 Behavioural animation

449

(2)

17.3 Motion control and the animator

451

(1)

17.4 Animation, modelling and physically based simulation

452

(8)

Further reading

477

(1)

18 The moving image in computer vision

478

(22)

18.1 Introduction

478

(6)

18.2 Motion fields -- global interpretation

484

(6)

18.3 A historical digression, a discussion, the difficulties

490

(2)

18.4 Motion field estimation

492

(5)

18.4.1 Motion field estimation from the flow of intensity -- differential methods

493

(1)

18.4.2 Intensity-based correlation

494

(1)

18.4.3 Multiframe motion analysis

495

(2)

18.5 Principles of structure from motion

497

(1)

Further reading

516

(2)

20 The computer image and the third dimension

518

(41)

20.1 Introduction

518

(1)

20.2 The three-dimensional computer image

519

(6)

20.2.1 Human beings and pictures

520

(4)

Further reading -- human beings, pictures and depth

524

(1)

20.3 Interacting with two-dimensional projections of a three-dimensional scene -- direct manipulation

525

(10)

20.3.1 Direct manipulation of objects -- linear transformations

527

(3)

20.3.2 Direct manipulation of objects -- non-linear transformations

530

(1)

20.3.3 Direct manipulation of objects -- high-level shape manipulation

531

(1)

20.3.4 Direct manipulation of objects -- free-form sculpting

532

(3)

Further reading -- direct manipulation of objects

535

(1)

20.4 The computer image and stereo

535

(6)

20.4.1 The stereograms of Bela Julesz

537

(2)

20.4.2 Autostereograms

539

(2)

Further reading

589

(2)

22 Seeing the unseen -- the computer image in medicine

591

(25)

22.1 The reconstruction problem

594

(4)

22.1.1 Reconstruction by back projection

596

(1)

22.1.2 Algebraic reconstruction

597

(1)

22.1.3 Reconstruction using the Fourier transform method

598

(1)

22.2 Volume rendering and the visualization of volume data

598

(6)

22.2.1 `Semi-transparent gel' option

601

(1)

22.2.2 Voxel classification

601

(1)

22.2.3 Transforming into the viewing direction

602

(1)

22.2.4 Compositing pixels along a ray

603

(1)

22.3 Semi-transparent gel plus surfaces

604

(3)

22.3.1 Explicit extraction of iso-surfaces

606

(1)

22.4 Structural considerations in volume rendering algorithms

607

(6)

22.4.1 Ray casting (untransformed data)

609

(2)

22.4.2 Ray casting (transformed data)

611

(1)

22.4.3 Voxel projection method

611

(2)

22.5 Perspective projection in volume rendering

613

(1)

22.6 Case study -- an example of CT data

614

(1)

Further reading

614

(2)

23 The computer image and art

616

(17)

23.1 Introduction

616

(3)

23.2 User-originated imagery -- painting

619

(1)

23.3 Compositing images

620

(2)

23.4 Manipulation of two-dimensional imagery -- multi-resolution painting

622

(1)

23.5 Manipulation of two-dimensional imagery -- using image processing techniques

623

(1)

23.6 Manipulation of three-dimensional imagery -- non-photo-realistic rendering

623

(2)

23.7 NPR imitating natural media -- pen and ink illustration

625

(7)

23.7.1 Interaction and NPR

628

(4)

Further reading

632

(1)

24 Fundamentals of the computer image

633

(32)

24.1 Representation -- sampling and quantization

633

(3)

24.2 Transformations and the computer image

636

(5)

24.2.1 Three-dimensional linear transformations

636

(4)

24.2.2 Transformations for changing coordinate systems

640

(1)

24.3 Vectors and the computer image

641

(6)

24.3.1 Addition of vectors

641

(1)

24.3.2 Length of vectors

642

(1)

24.3.3 Normal vectors and cross products

642

(2)

24.3.4 Normal vectors and dot products

644

(1)

24.3.5 Vectors associated with the normal vector

645

(2)

24.4 Rays and the computer image

647

(7)

24.4.1 Ray geometry -- intersections

647

(1)

24.4.2 Intersections -- ray/sphere

648

(1)

24.4.3 Intersections -- ray/convex polygon

649

(1)

24.4.4 Intersections -- ray/box

650

(1)

24.4.5 Intersections -- ray/quadric

651

(1)

24.4.6 Ray tracing geometry -- reflection and refraction

652

(2)

24.5 Cameras and virtual cameras

654

(7)

24.5.1 Camera image formation -- perspective projection

654

(3)

24.5.2 Camera geometry

657

(3)

24.5.3 Stereo camera geometry

660

(1)

24.6 Differentiating and averaging images

661

(2)

24.7 Interpolating properties in the image plane

663

(2)

25 Colour and the computer image

665

(37)

25.1 The sensation of colour

665

(2)

25.2 Colour and the computer image

667

(4)

25.3 Colour sets in colour imagery

671

(1)

25.4 Colour and three-dimensional space

672

(7)

25.4.1 RGB space

675

(1)

25.4.2 The HSV single hexcone model

676

(3)

25.4.3 YIQ space

679

(1)

25.5 Colour, information and perceptual spaces

679

(8)

25.5.1 CIE XYZ space

682

(3)

25.5.2 CIE xyY space

685

(2)

25.6 Rendering and colour spaces

687

(2)

25.7 Monitor considerations

689

(5)

25.7.1 RGBmonitor space and other monitor considerations

689

(1)

25.7.2 Monitor considerations -- different monitors and the same colour

689

(2)

25.7.3 Monitor considerations -- colour gamut mapping

691

(1)

25.7.4 Monitor considerations -- gamma correction

692

(2)

25.8 Colour quantization

694

(6)

25.8.1 Choosing colours to represent the image

695

(2)

25.8.2 Colour mapping -- second pass

697

(1)

25.8.3 Adding jitter

697

(3)

25.9 Colour and computer vision

700

(1)

Further reading

701

(1)

26 Reducing the information: compressing images -- a new frontier

702

(35)

26.1 Classical image compression techniques

706

(5)

26.1.1 Loss-free compression -- coding redundancy

706

(2)

26.1.2 Loss-free compression -- inter-pixel redundancy

708

(1)

26.1.3 Predictive coding

709

(2)

26.2 Lossy image compression

711

(6)

26.2.1 The discrete cosine transform

712

(1)

26.2.2 The wavelet transform, compression and progressive transmission

713

(3)

26.2.3 Colour images and compression

716

(1)

26.3 Practical classic image compression -- JPEG

717

(4)

26.3.1 The JPEG model for lossy image compression

718

(1)

26.3.2 DCT coefficients and the human visual system

719

(1)

26.3.3 JPEG operating modes

720

(1)

26.4 Fractal image compression

721

(6)

26.4.1 Encoding

724

(2)

26.4.2 Decoding

726

(1)

26.5 Image compression in moving imagery

727

(8)

26.5.1 Motion compensation in moving imagery

729

(2)

26.5.2 Strategies in the compression of moving imagery

731

(2)

26.5.3 MPEG frame organization

733

(1)

26.5.4 FBC and moving images

734

(1)

Further reading

735

(2)

Index

737

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The Computer Image

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