Constitutional Law

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ISBN: 9780314158857 | 0314158855
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 12/12/2005

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This Black Letter discusses the allocations of national and state governmental power, individual rights and liberties, and the constitutional limitations on governmental power. Topics covered include the Dormant Commerce Clause, abortion, fundamental rights and due process, takings, equal protection, First Amendment and content-based regulations, and freedom of religion.

Capsule Summary of Constitutional Law

(70)

Perspective

(16)

PART ONE: THE ALLOCATION OF GOVERNMENTAL POWER: NATIONAL AND STATE

Judicial Review

(40)

Establishing Judicial Review

(2)

``Judicial Review'' Defined

(1)

Review of Federal Action

(1)

Reviewing Acts of Congress---Marbury v. Madison

(1)

Reviewing Executive Action

(1)

Review of State Action

(1)

Source of Judicial Power: Article III Jurisdiction

(4)

Federal ``Judicial Power'' Defined

(1)

Art. III and Art. I Courts

(1)

Subject Matter Jurisdiction

(1)

Congressional Control

(1)

Supreme Court Jurisdiction

(1)

Original Jurisdiction

(1)

Appellate Jurisdiction---Congressional Power to Confer and Withdraw

(1)

Essential Functions: Internal Restraints

(1)

Rights and Liberties: External Restraints

(1)

Discretionary Review

(1)

Certiorari

(1)

Basis for Review

(1)

Constitutional and Policy Limitations on Judicial Review

(4)

Constitutional Limitations

(1)

Eleventh Amendment

(1)

State Immunity

(1)

Waiver

(1)

Congressional Limitations

(1)

Unconstitutional Official Acts

(1)

Case and Controversy

(1)

No Advisory Opinions

(1)

Declaratory Judgments

(1)

Policy Limitations (Judicial Self Restraint)

(1)

Rules for Constitutional Review

(1)

Presumption of Constitutionality

(1)

Judicial Restraint

(1)

Congressional Role

(1)

Specific Doctrines---Limiting Judicial Review

(26)

The Standing Limitation---Who Can Litigate?

(1)

Constitutional Standing

(1)

General Standards

(1)

``Injury in Fact''

(4)

Causation---``Fairly Traceable''

103

(2)

Redressability

105

(1)

Taxpayer and Citizen Standing

106

(1)

Federal Taxpayers

106

(1)

State Taxpayers

107

(1)

Citizen Standing

107

(1)

Statutory Standing

108

(3)

Prudential Standing

111

(1)

Third Party Standing---Raising the Rights of Others

111

(3)

Associational Standing

114

(1)

The Timing Limitation---When Can Constitutional Litigation Be Brought?

114

(1)

Mootness

114

(3)

Ripeness, Prematurity and Abstractness

117

(3)

Discretionary Abstention

120

(1)

Vagueness

120

(1)

Pending State Proceedings

120

(1)

The Subject Matter Limitation---What Can Be Litigated?

121

(1)

The Political Question Doctrine

121

(1)

Classic Doctrine

121

(1)

Functional Considerations

121

(1)

Prudential Considerations

121

(2)

Adequate and Independent State Grounds

123

(1)

Substantive Rules

123

(1)

Procedural Rules

123

(1)

Review Questions

124

(3)

National Legislative Powers

127

(30)

The Scope of the National Legislative Power

128

(3)

Express Powers

128

(1)

Implied Powers

128

(1)

``Necessary and Proper'' Clause

128

(1)

Interpretation of ``Necessary and Proper''

128

(2)

Inherent Powers

130

(1)

Delegation of Powers

130

(1)

The Tenth Amendment

130

(1)

The Supremacy Clause

130

(1)

Commerce Power

131

(11)

Definition

131

(1)

Territorial Movement

131

(1)

A Broader Commerce Power

131

(1)

The Regulatory Power

131

(1)

Achieving Social Welfare Through the Commerce Power---A National Police Power?

131

(1)

Prohibiting Commerce

132

(1)

Pretext Principle

132

(1)

Protective Principle---The Modern View

132

(1)

Stream of Commerce

133

(1)

Instrumentalities of Commerce

133

(1)

The Affectation Doctrine

134

(1)

Regulating Local Activities

134

(1)

Direct-Indirect Test

134

(1)

The Modern Affectation Doctrine

135

(1)

Substantial Effects

135

(1)

Cumulative Effects

135

(1)

Restricting the Commerce Power

136

(3)

Affectation after Lopez and Morrison

139

(3)

Narrowing Construction

142

(1)

The Taxing Power

142

(2)

Objective Constitutionality

143

(1)

The Penalty Doctrine

143

(1)

Modern Trend

144

(1)

Self-Incrimination

144

(1)

The Spending Power

144

(3)

General Welfare

144

(1)

Reasonable Conditions

145

(1)

Constitutional Limitations

145

(2)

Spending as a Contract: Explicit Conditions

147

(1)

Intergovernmental Immunities

147

(6)

State Taxation and Regulation

148

(1)

Federal Taxation and Regulation

148

(1)

Federal Taxation of States

148

(1)

Federal Regulation of States

148

(5)

Review Questions

153

(4)

State Power in American Federalism

157

(34)

State Power to Regulate Commerce

159

(24)

Establishing the Foundations

159

(1)

The Nature of the Power---Exclusive or Concurrent

159

(1)

The Commerce Power Is, at Least Partially, a Shared Power

159

(1)

Primacy of Federal Regulation

160

(1)

The Nature of the Subject---The Cooley Doctrine

160

(1)

The Modern Focus: The Dormant Commerce Clause

160

(1)

Rationale

161

(1)

Common Market Philosophy

161

(1)

A Political Rationale

161

(1)

Direct and Indirect Effects

161

(1)

The Modern Standards

161

(1)

Discrimination

161

(1)

Intentional Discrimination

161

(1)

Discriminatory Means and Effects

162

(8)

Undue Burdens---Ad Hoc Balancing

170

(1)

Important State Interests

170

(1)

Trade, Conservation, Environment

171

(3)

Transportation

174

(1)

State as Market Participant

174

(2)

Protecting Personal Mobility Through the Dormant Commerce Clause

176

(1)

Interstate Privileges and Immunities

176

(3)

When Congress Speaks

179

(1)

Preemption

179

(2)

Legitimizing State Burdens on Commerce

181

(2)

The Compact Clause

183

(1)

State Power to Tax Commerce

183

(5)

General Principles

184

(1)

Concurrent Power

184

(1)

Discrimination

184

(1)

Due Process

184

(1)

Interstate Commerce

184

(1)

``Multiple Burdens''

184

(1)

Apportionment

185

(1)

Modern Applications

185

(3)

Review Questions

188

(3)

Congress and Executive Power

191

(20)

The Domestic Arena

192

(8)

Executive Law-Making

192

(1)

Limited Domestic Law-Making Powers

192

(1)

Veto Power

193

(1)

Executive Impoundment

194

(1)

Justification

194

(1)

Critique

194

(1)

Delegation and Control of Legislative Power

194

(1)

Legislative Delegation

194

(2)

The Legislative Veto

196

(1)

The Appointment and Removal Power

196

(1)

The Appointment Power

196

(2)

The Removal Power

198

(1)

Executive Removal

198

(1)

Congressional Removal

198

(1)

Separation of Powers Generally

199

(1)

The Foreign Arena

200

(4)

Foreign Affairs

200

(1)

Presidential Powers

200

(1)

Congressional Powers

200

(1)

Shared Powers

201

(1)

Treaties and Executive Agreements

201

(1)

Treaties

201

(1)

Executive Agreements

201

(1)

Supremacy

201

(1)

Self-Executing Treaties

202

(1)

The War Power

202

(1)

Shared Power

202

(1)

Declaring and Making War

203

(1)

War Powers Resolution

203

(1)

The Militia Clauses

203

(1)

Military Detentions

203

(1)

Privileges and Immunities

204

(3)

Executive Privilege

204

(1)

Limitations

204

(1)

Unsettled Areas

204

(1)

Impeachment

205

(1)

Grounds

205

(1)

Procedure

205

(1)

Unsettled Questions

206

(1)

Presidential Immunity

206

(1)

Congressional Immunity

206

(1)

Review Questions

207

(4)

PART TWO: INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES: CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS ON GOVERNMENTAL POWER

Historical Perspectives

211

(6)

The Original Constitution

212

(1)

Natural Rights

212

(1)

Express Rights

212

(1)

Bill of Rights

212

(1)

The Civil War Amendments

213

(1)

Subsequent Amendments

213

(1)

The Thirteenth Amendment

213

(1)

The Fourteenth Amendment

213

(1)

The Fifteenth Amendment

213

(1)

Privileges and Immunities of National Citizenship

213

(2)

The Slaughterhouse Cases

213

(1)

Function of the Clause

214

(1)

Rationale

214

(1)

Recent Revival

214

(1)

Review Questions

215

(2)

Due Process of Law

217

(60)

Ex Post Facto Laws

218

(3)

Constitutional Text

218

(1)

Criminal Punishment

218

(2)

Civil Laws

220

(1)

Bills of Attainder

221

(1)

Constitutional Text

221

(1)

Punishment Without Trial

221

(1)

Impairment of Obligation of Contract

222

(2)

Constitutional Text

222

(1)

Present Scope

222

(1)

Judicial Construction

222

(1)

Private Contracts

222

(1)

Public Contracts

223

(1)

The Takings Clause

224

(8)

Taking Property

224

(1)

Constitutional Text

224

(1)

What Is a ``Taking''

224

(1)

Regulatory Takings

224

(1)

Reasonable Regulation

224

(3)

Categorical (Per Se) Takings

227

(2)

Conditional Takings

229

(2)

Public Use

231

(1)

Due Process: The Incorporation Process

232

(1)

Total Incorporation

232

(1)

Flexible Due Process

232

(1)

Selective Incorporation

232

(1)

Standard of Incorporation

232

(1)

Provisions Not Incorporated

233

(1)

Full and Partial Incorporation

233

(1)

Traditional Substantive Due Process

233

(4)

The Rise and Fall of Economic Substantive Due Process

234

(1)

Rise of Economic Substantive Due Process

234

(1)

Decline of Economic Substantive Due Process

234

(1)

Modern Substantive Due Process: Non-Fundamental Rights

235

(2)

Substantive Due Process Revisited: The Right of Privacy and Other Unenumerated Rights

237

(18)

Fundamental Rights

237

(1)

Express, Implied and Unenumerated Rights

237

(1)

Contraception and Abortion

238

(1)

The Privacy Right

238

(1)

The Roe v. Wade Revolution and Reaction

239

(1)

The Uncertain Effect of Casey

240

(3)

Privacy Rights of Minors

243

(1)

Abortion Funding

244

(1)

Sodomy Laws

245

(1)

The Bowers v. Hardwick Precedent

245

(1)

Bowers v. Hardwick Overruled

245

(2)

Rights to Marriage and Family Life

247

(2)

The Right of Travel

249

(1)

Right of Interstate Movement

249

(1)

Right of Foreign Travel

250

(1)

The Right to Care and Protection

250

(1)

The Right to Refuse Treatment

251

(1)

The Right to Die

252

(1)

Rights in Restricted Environments

253

(2)

Procedural Due Process

255

(17)

What Is ``Property''?

256

(1)

What Is ``Liberty''?

257

(1)

What Is a ``Deprivation''?

258

(1)

Due Process Contexts

258

(1)

Welfare Rights

258

(1)

The Statutory Entitlement Concept

258

(1)

Balancing to Determine Fairness

258

(1)

The Right to Use and Possess Property: Constitutionalizing the Consumer Credit Relationship

259

(1)

Wages as a Property Interest

259

(1)

Contingent Interests in Property

259

(1)

Employment Rights of the Public Sector

260

(1)

Conditions of Employment

260

(1)

Employment at Will---Conditional Property Interests

261

(1)

Institutional Due Process

262

(3)

Parental Rights

265

(1)

Student Rights

266

(1)

Access to Courts

267

(1)

Filing and Record Fees

267

(1)

Effective Access

268

(1)

Miscellaneous

269

(2)

Conclusive Presumptions

271

(1)

Review Questions

272

(5)

Equal Protection

277

(62)

General Standards

278

(1)

Constitutional Text

278

(1)

Unreasonable Classification

278

(1)

Standards of Reasonableness

278

(1)

Traditional Equal Protection

278

(5)

The Rational Basis Test

278

(2)

Rationality With Bite

280

(3)

Heightened Review Equal Protection

283

(51)

Suspect Classifications

283

(1)

Criteria of Suspectness

283

(1)

Purpose, Not Effect

283

(4)

Legislation and Administration

287

(1)

The Rationale and Limits of Suspectness

288

(1)

Race and National Origin

288

(2)

Segregation in Education

290

(1)

De Jure Segregation

290

(1)

De Facto Segregation

290

(1)

Duty to Desegregate

290

(1)

Desegregation: Balancing, Quotas and Busing

291

(2)

Interdistrict Segregation

293

(1)

Resegregation

293

(1)

Affirmative Action

294

(11)

Alienage---The ``Sometimes Suspect'' Classification

305

(1)

Compelling Justification

305

(1)

Political Functions Exception

306

(1)

Preemption

307

(1)

Federal Discrimination

307

(1)

Gender Classifications

308

(1)

Sex Discrimination

308

(4)

Discriminatory Purpose

312

(1)

Non-sex Classifications

312

(1)

Affirmative Action

313

(1)

Mothers and Fathers

314

(1)

Illegitimacy Classifications

315

(1)

Wealth and Age

316

(1)

Mental Retardation

317

(1)

Sexual Orientation

317

(1)

Fundamental Rights and Interests

318

(1)

First Amendment Rights

319

(1)

The Right to Travel

319

(2)

The Right of Sexual Privacy

321

(1)

Right to Marry

321

(1)

Voting

322

(1)

Exercising the Franchise

322

(1)

Voting Qualifications

322

(1)

Special Purpose Districts

323

(1)

Durational Residency Requirements

324

(1)

The Fifteenth Amendment

324

(1)

Diluting the Franchise

325

(1)

Access to the Ballot

325

(1)

Reapportionment

326

(2)

Multi-member Districts

328

(1)

Political Gerrymandering

329

(1)

Inequality in Vote Processes

330

(1)

Access to Justice

330

(2)

Education

332

(2)

Welfare

334

(1)

Review Questions

334

(5)

Freedom of Expression

339

(134)

The Basic Doctrine of Freedom of Expression

340

(12)

First Amendment Rationale

340

(1)

Marketplace of Ideas

340

(1)

The Citizen Participant Model

340

(1)

The Individual Liberty Model

341

(1)

First Amendment Methodology

341

(1)

Categories of Speech

341

(1)

Strict Scrutiny

342

(1)

Balancing

342

(1)

Content-Based v. Content-Neutral Regulation

342

(1)

Content-Based Regulation

342

(2)

Content-Neutral Regulation

344

(2)

The Doctrine of Prior Restraint: Forms of Control

346

(4)

First Amendment Vagueness and Overbreadth

350

(1)

Vagueness

350

(1)

Overbreadth

350

(1)

Third Party Standing

351

(1)

Substantial Overbreadth

351

(1)

Freedom of Association and Belief

352

(10)

Restraints on Membership and Associational Action

353

(1)

Group Registration and Disclosure Requirement

354

(2)

Restraints on Government Employment and Benefits

356

(1)

General Principles

356

(1)

Loyalty Programs and Loyalty Oaths

357

(1)

Loyalty Programs

357

(1)

Loyalty Oaths

357

(1)

Positive Oaths

357

(1)

Overbreadth

358

(1)

Vagueness

358

(1)

Individual Membership Disclosure: Bar Admission Requirements

358

(1)

Political Patronage

359

(2)

Legislative Investigations and Forced Disclosures

361

(1)

Investigatory Power

361

(1)

First Amendment Limitations

361

(1)

Disclosure Requirements and Self-Incrimination

361

(1)

Group Litigation

362

(1)

Freedom from Compelled Expression

362

(6)

Compelled Support

363

(1)

Compulsory Fees and Dues

364

(2)

Membership Discrimination

366

(2)

The Electoral Process

368

(12)

Political Speech and Association

368

(5)

Regulating Political Parties

373

(2)

Limitations on Contributions and Expenditures

375

(1)

Campaign Spending

375

(5)

Ballot Referenda

380

(1)

Forced Disclosure Requirements

380

(1)

Speech in the Local Forum

380

(27)

Controlling Speech Content

381

(1)

The Clear and Present Danger Test

381

(1)

The Early Formulation

381

(1)

The Doctrine Distorted

382

(1)

Advocacy v. Incitement

382

(1)

The Modern Test: Incitement and Danger

383

(2)

The Fighting Words Doctrine

385

(1)

Rationale

385

(1)

Overbreadth and Vagueness

385

(2)

``Protected'' Fighting Words

387

(1)

Hostile Audiences

388

(1)

Offensive and Abusive Language

388

(1)

True Threats

389

(1)

Equal Protection as a First Amendment Doctrine

390

(1)

Hate Speech

391

(1)

Regulating Public Property

392

(1)

The Nature of the Forum

392

(1)

Traditional Public Forum

393

(1)

Limited or Designated Public Forum

394

(1)

Nonpublic Forum

395

(3)

Privately-Owned Property

398

(1)

The Demand for Reasonable Regulation

399

(1)

The O'Brien Standards

399

(1)

Determining Reasonableness

399

(1)

Speech Plus

400

(1)

Sound Amplification and Interest Balancing

401

(1)

Protecting the Homeowner

402

(2)

Licensing, Prior Restraint and the Duty to Obey

404

(1)

Facial Validity---Vagueness and Overbreadth

405

(1)

The Duty to Obey

406

(1)

Procedural Standards

407

(1)

Symbolic Speech (Expressive Conduct)

407

(3)

Is the Conduct Communicative?

407

(1)

Is the Speech Protected?

407

(3)

Commercial Speech

410

(11)

Definition

410

(1)

Applying the First Amendment

411

(1)

Unprotected Commercial Speech

412

(1)

The Modern Test

412

(3)

Lawyer and Other Professional Advertising

415

(3)

Advertising Harmful Activity

418

(3)

Freedom of the Press

421

(23)

Defamation

422

(1)

Public Officials and Public Figures

422

(1)

Rationale

422

(1)

Who Is a Public Official?

423

(1)

Who Is a Public Figure?

423

(1)

All-Purpose Public Figures

423

(1)

Limited Purpose ``Vortex'' Public Figures

423

(2)

Actual Malice

425

(1)

Private Figures

426

(1)

Standards of Review

426

(1)

Presumed and Punitive Damages

426

(1)

Proof of Falsity

427

(1)

The Fact-Opinion Dichotomy

427

(1)

Privacy

428

(1)

Invasions of Privacy

428

(1)

False Light Privacy

428

(1)

Disclosure of Private Facts

428

(1)

Disclosure of Illegally Obtained Information

429

(2)

Right of Publicity

431

(1)

Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress

431

(1)

Newsgathering

432

(1)

Newsman's Privilege

432

(1)

Access to Public Information and Institutions

432

(1)

Prisons

432

(1)

Censorship of Mail

432

(1)

Interviewing Prisoners

433

(1)

Judicial Proceedings

433

(1)

Criminal Trials

433

(1)

Pretrial Proceedings

434

(1)

Newsroom Searches and Seizures

435

(1)

Cameras in the Courtroom

436

(1)

436

(1)

Silencing Trial Participants

436

(1)

Media Ride Alongs

437

(1)

Regulation of Electronic Media

437

(1)

Regulating Broadcasting

437

(2)

Regulating Cable Television

439

(3)

Regulating the Internet

442

(1)

Public Access to the Media

443

(1)

Public Access to the Electronic Media

443

(1)

Fairness Doctrine

443

(1)

A Right of Access

443

(1)

Public Access to the Print Media

444

(1)

Obscenity

444

(12)

No First Amendment Protection

444

(1)

Rationality Satisfied

444

(1)

A Matter of Definition

444

(1)

The Modern Definition

445

(1)

Contemporary Community Standards

445

(1)

No National Community Standard

445

(1)

Federal Jury Standard

445

(1)

Identifying ``Community'' Members

445

(1)

Experts

445

(1)

Appellate Review

446

(1)

Defining the Relevant Audience

446

(1)

The Average Person

446

(1)

Variable Obscenity: Minors and Deviants

446

(1)

The Demand for Specificity

446

(1)

Vagueness

446

(1)

Overbreadth

447

(1)

Pandering

447

(1)

Racketeering Laws

448

(1)

Serious Value

448

(1)

Privacy and Obscenity

448

(1)

Civil Control of Obscenity and Indecency

449

(1)

Prior Restraints

449

(1)

Content-Neutral Regulation

449

(1)

Vagueness and Overbreadth

450

(2)

Broadcasting and Indecent Speech

452

(1)

Child Pornography

452

(2)

Procedural Fairness

454

(1)

Administrative Regulation

454

(1)

Judicial Censorship

455

(1)

Search and Seizure

456

(1)

Special Contexts

456

(10)

Political Activity by Government Employees

456

(4)

The Academic Forum

460

(1)

Library Censorship

460

(1)

Student Speech

460

(2)

Academic Freedom

462

(1)

Subsidized Speech

462

(4)

Review Questions

466

(7)

Freedom of Religion

473

(42)

The Meaning of the ``Establishment'' Clause

474

(26)

Religion in the Schools

475

(1)

Released Time

475

(1)

Prayers, Bible Reading, Moments of Silence and Devotional Exercises

476

(2)

Teaching Religious Values

478

(1)

Curriculum Control

478

(1)

Covert Religious Purpose

479

(1)

Equal Access

479

(4)

Financial Assistance to Religious Institutions

483

(1)

Public Benefits

483

(1)

Financial Aid to Schools

484

(1)

Elementary-Secondary v. Higher Education

485

(1)

Testing, Recordkeeping, and Other Services and Equipment

486

(3)

Tax Relief and Tuition Benefits

489

(3)

Other Establishment Contexts

492

(1)

Blue Laws

492

(1)

Tax Exemptions

493

(1)

Social Welfare Programs

493

(1)

Legislative Prayer

494

(1)

Religious Displays

494

(4)

Denominational Preferences

498

(1)

Internal Church Disputes

499

(1)

Institutionalized Persons

499

(1)

The Meaning of the ``Free Exercise'' Clause

500

(10)

Belief-Conduct

501

(1)

Centrality and Sincerity

501

(1)

General Indirect Burdens

502

(1)

Blue Laws

503

(1)

Conditioning Public Welfare Benefits

503

(2)

Compelled Expression

505

(2)

Noncoercive Laws

507

(1)

Proscribed Religious Practices

508

(2)

The Meaning of Religion

510

(1)

Conscientious Objection

511

(1)

Review Questions

511

(4)

State Action

515

(16)

The State Action Requirement

516

(1)

Thirteenth Amendment

516

(1)

Fourteenth Amendment

516

(1)

Fifteenth Amendment

517

(1)

The Present Standard---State Responsibility

517

(1)

Official Misconduct and Joint Action

517

(1)

Action Contrary to Law

517

(1)

Public Administration

517

(1)

Joint Action

518

(1)

Public Functions

518

(2)

White Primaries

518

(1)

Company Towns

519

(1)

Traditionally and Exclusively Sovereign

519

(1)

Significant State Involvement

520

(4)

Symbiotic Relationships

520

(2)

Government Regulation and Licensing

522

(1)

Government Financial Support

523

(1)

Encouragement, Authorization and Approval

524

(4)

Neutral Law Enforcement

524

(1)

Involuntary Discrimination

524

(1)

Significant Encouragement

524

(1)

Authorization and Approval

525

(3)

Review Questions

528

(3)

Congressional Legislation in Aid of Civil Rights and Liberties

531

(132)

In General: Federal Legislative Jurisdiction

532

(1)

Commerce Clause

532

(1)

Spending Power

532

(1)

Federal Rights

532

(1)

Authority to Enforce Amendments

532

(1)

Enforcing the Thirteenth Amendment

533

(1)

Private Action Covered

533

(1)

Badges of Slavery

533

(1)

Enforcing the Fourteenth Amendment

534

(8)

Scope of the Enforcement Power

534

(2)

Constitutional Limits on Enforcement Powers

536

(1)

Tenth Amendment

536

(1)

Sovereign Immunity

537

(3)

Private Action

540

(1)

Historic Barrier

540

(1)

Basis for Expansion

541

(1)

The Expansionist Approach Rejected

541

(1)

Thirteenth Amendment

542

(1)

Enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment

542

(1)

Constitutional Text

542

(1)

Enforcement Clause

542

(1)

Review Questions

543

(4)

APPENDICES

A. Answers to Review Questions

547

(36)

B. Practice Examination

583

(20)

C. Text Correlation Chart

603

(12)

D. Glossary

615

(30)

E. Table of Cases

645

(18)

F. Index

663

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Constitutional Law

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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