Contaminated Land: Problems and Solutions, Second Edition

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ISBN: 9780419230908 | 0419230904
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 5/11/1998

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Contaminated land can be reclaimed safely, provided the proposed end-use of the land is appropriate and based on thorough site investigation. This book examines the subject, reviewing current methods and strategies for safe and economical reclamation.

Preface to the second edition

xii

Acknowledgement

xiv

Contributors

International responses

(9)

Introduction

(1)

Differences in national responses to land contamination

(6)

Various national viewpoints

(1)

The complexity of soil systems

(2)

Identification of land contamination and necessary clean-up standards

(2)

Variation in legislation and controls

(1)

Signs of an international consensus

(2)

Risks from contaminated land

(18)

Introduction

(1)

What is 'contaminated land'?

(1)

Estimating the amount of contaminated land

(1)

Standards and criteria to establish if land is contaminated

(4)

Risk assessment of ground contamination

(3)

The development of legislation, policy and practices in the UK

(5)

Netherlands policies and practices

(1)

Summary

(2)

Rational site investigations

(50)

Introduction

(1)

Purposes of site investigation

(6)

Risks to land users

(1)

Effects on the environment

(2)

Level of detail required

(1)

Topics of interest

(1)

Site investigation strategy

(1)

Preparation

(12)

Data collection

(3)

Recorded physical conditions

(1)

Previous uses and contamination potential

(4)

Preliminary conceptual model

(1)

Site reconnaissance

(2)

Defining objectives

(1)

Designing an investigation

(14)

Information required

(1)

Sampling strategy

(1)

Non-targeted sampling

(3)

Targeted sampling

(1)

Sampling depths

(1)

Background conditions

(1)

Groundwater and surface water sampling

(3)

Gas monitoring

(1)

Analytical testing

(1)

Sample type and size

(2)

Exploratory techniques

(4)

Hand methods

(1)

Trial pits

(2)

Light cable percussion boreholes

(1)

Power auger drilling

(1)

Dynamic probes and small diameter boreholes

(1)

Soil gas surveys

(1)

Implementation

(6)

Specification

(1)

Site work stage

(2)

Recording of data

(1)

Sample preservation

(1)

Safety precautions

(1)

Testing programmes

(2)

Reporting and interpretation

(4)

Presentation of data

(1)

Characterizing zones

(2)

Assessment of targeted testing

(1)

Assessment of water testing

(1)

Report recommendations

(1)

Conclusions

(2)

Reclamation options

(21)

Introduction

(1)

Reclamation choice in the United Kingdom

(6)

Evolution of the UK's emphases on land contamination

(3)

Challenges to current UK emphases

(3)

Reclamation choices when health and environmental concerns dominate

(3)

Engineering-based (broad spectrum) techniques

(6)

Excavation and disposal

(1)

On-site encapsulation

(1)

Dilution of contamination

(1)

Clean covers

(1)

Soil dry screening

(1)

Summary

(2)

Innovative (narrow spectrum) techniques

(5)

Introduction

(1)

Remediation of oily contamination

(3)

Removal of cyanides and heavier hydrocarbon contamination

(1)

Treatment of metal contaminated sites

(1)

Summary

(1)

Clean cover technology

(29)

Introduction

(1)

Basic design decisions

100

(12)

What does a cover have to do?

100

(1)

How long does a cover have to remain effective?

101

(1)

What materials can be included in a cover?

102

(1)

Detailing the necessary material properties

103

(4)

Quantifying the cover design

107

(1)

Identifying possible failure mechanisms

108

(3)

The time before any failure becomes apparent

111

(1)

Ensuring that the client appreciates the design methodology and any liabilities this may imply

112

(1)

Simple covers

112

(1)

Covers intended to combat upward migration of contamination

113

(6)

Designing a capillary break layer cover

113

(3)

Example

116

(3)

Covers designed to minimize groundwater pollution

119

(7)

Introduction

119

(1)

Rainfall infiltration and cover design

119

(5)

Encapsulation covers

124

(2)

Soil cappings

126

(1)

Appropriate and non-appropriate applications of clean covers

126

(2)

In-ground barriers

128

(30)

Introduction

128

(2)

The requirements for a cut-off

130

(1)

Gas permeability

131

(1)

Potentials tending to cause flow

132

(1)

Types of vertical barrier

133

(2)

Driven barriers

134

(1)

Injected barriers

134

(1)

Cut-and-fill type barriers

134

(1)

The slurry trench process

135

(1)

Types of slurry trench cut-offs

136

(3)

Soil--active clay cut-offs

136

(1)

Clay--cement cut-offs

136

(1)

Clay--cement--aggregate cut-offs

137

(1)

Cut-offs with membranes

138

(1)

High-density walls

139

(1)

Drainage walls

139

(1)

Slurry preparation

139

(1)

Requirements for the excavation slurry

140

(2)

Excavation stabilization

141

(1)

Slurry loss

141

(1)

Bleeding and settlement

142

(1)

Setting time

142

(1)

Displacement

142

(1)

Compatibility of materials

142

(3)

Clays and water

142

(2)

Cements and cement replacement materials

144

(1)

Mix water

145

(1)

Sampling slurries

145

(1)

Sample containers, storage and handling

146

(1)

Testing slurries

146

(3)

Density

146

(1)

Rheological measurements

147

(1)

The Marsh funnel

148

(1)

Other parameters

148

(1)

Testing hardened properties

149

(1)

Unconfined compression tests

149

(1)

Confined drainage triaxial testing

149

(1)

Permeability tests

150

(1)

Specifications for slurry trench cut-offs

150

(4)

Mechanical performance: permeability

151

(1)

Stress--strain behaviour

152

(1)

Durability

153

(1)

The design compromise

153

(1)

Overtopping and capping

154

(2)

Capping

155

(1)

Future developments

156

(1)

The bio-barrier

156

(1)

Active barriers

156

(1)

Conclusions

156

(2)

Reclaiming potentially combustible sites

158

(19)

Introduction

158

(1)

Combustion processes

158

(4)

General combustion

158

(3)

Spontaneous combustion

161

(1)

Combustion tests

162

(11)

Introduction

162

(1)

British Standard tests

162

(1)

Direct combustion testing

162

(1)

Loss-on-ignition tests

163

(1)

Calorific value testing

163

(2)

Fire Research Station test method

165

(1)

Combustion potential test

165

(6)

Air permeability test

171

(2)

Use of the combustion potential test

173

(2)

Case study 1

173

(1)

Case study 2

174

(1)

Case study 3

174

(1)

Case study 4

174

(1)

Case study 5

175

(1)

Case study 6

175

(1)

Conclusions

175

(2)

Gas and vapour investigations

177

(38)

Introduction

177

(1)

Principal subsurface gases and their properties

177

(1)

Gas and vapour monitoring

178

(10)

Monitoring equipment

178

(1)

Gas monitoring observation works

179

(7)

Gaseous properties of importance

186

(2)

Establishing most hazardous gassing conditions

188

(6)

Introduction

188

(1)

Factors affecting landfill gas (and other degradation product gas) results

188

(3)

Factors affecting the measurements of gases not generated by degradation

191

(2)

Conclusions

193

(1)

Gas and vapour survey procedures

194

(5)

Introduction

194

(1)

Selecting observation hole locations

194

(1)

Including more hazardous gassing conditions in gas and vapour surveys

195

(2)

Data consistency

197

(1)

Gassing categories

197

(2)

Solutions to subsurface gaseous contaminants

199

(3)

Introduction

199

(2)

Gas source identification

201

(1)

Legislative controls and official advice on redevelopment

202

(2)

Introduction

202

(1)

Main restrictions

203

(1)

Gas emission predictions

204

(1)

Case studies

204

(9)

Glasgow greenbelt

204

(1)

Paper mill site, central Scotland

205

(2)

Former steel mill site, West Midlands

207

(2)

Midlands foundry site

209

(2)

Leisure development, London Docklands

211

(2)

Summary

213

(2)

Establishing new landscapes

215

(21)

Introduction

215

(1)

Plant requirements

216

(6)

Sunlight

216

(1)

Anchorage

217

(2)

Water availability

219

(2)

Plant nutrients

221

(1)

Soil cover

222

(4)

Evaluation

222

(1)

Depth of cover

222

(2)

Soil ameliorants

224

(2)

Soil fertility

226

(1)

Site preparation

227

(1)

Establishing grass cover

228

(2)

Establishing trees and shrubs

230

(2)

Maintenance

232

(1)

Species selection

233

(1)

Natural regeneration

234

(1)

Conclusion

235

(1)

UK legal framework

236

(25)

Introduction

236

(1)

Sources of law relating to contaminated land

236

(3)

Legislation: primary and subordinate

236

(1)

Case law

237

(1)

Common law

237

(1)

Guidance Notes and Codes of Practice

238

(1)

European Union regulations, decisions and directives

238

(1)

Law relating to contaminated land

239

(8)

General outline

239

(1)

Principal legislation

239

(7)

Common law

246

(1)

The Environment Act 1995

247

(9)

Other relevant legislation

256

(4)

Introduction

256

(1)

Government overall policy

256

(1)

Building regulations

257

(1)

Waste management powers

257

(2)

Summary

259

(1)

Conclusions

260

(1)

Introduction to waste management practices in the United States of America

261

(27)

Introduction

261

(1)

Regulatory impetus for remediation

261

(7)

Background on regulations

262

(2)

The landbans

264

(1)

BDATs (Best Demonstrated and Available Technologies)

265

(1)

Characteristic wastes versus listed wastes

266

(2)

Phase II disposal role -- Universal Treatment Standards

268

(1)

Regulation escalation and backlash

268

(7)

The remediation process under CERCLA

275

(7)

Preliminary assessment/site investigation

277

(1)

Assignment to National Priority List

277

(1)

Remedial investigation/feasibility study

277

(2)

The remedy selection process

279

(1)

Remedial action selection

280

(1)

Remedial process selection

281

(1)

Remedial design/remedial action

281

(1)

Post closure

281

(1)

Public participation

281

(1)

Cost

282

(1)

Reforms needed

282

(1)

Trends in remediation technology

282

(1)

Remediation under RCRA

283

(1)

Radioactive wastes

284

(1)

Remediation markets

285

(1)

Remediation business outlook

286

(1)

Conclusions

286

(2)

Netherlands' reclamation practices

288

(13)

Introduction

288

(1)

Legal and administrative controls

288

(2)

Private-sector initiatives

290

(1)

Decision-making on contaminated sites

291

(3)

Introduction

291

(1)

Current practice

291

(3)

Designing a risk assessment

294

(2)

Introduction

294

(1)

Use of CSOIL model

294

(1)

Ecotoxicological assessments

295

(1)

Contaminant migration

295

(1)

Remediation procedures

296

(2)

Introduction

296

(1)

Remediation plan and specifications

297

(1)

Regulation of excavated soils

297

(1)

Soil remediation practices

298

(2)

Introduction

298

(1)

Current trends

298

(1)

Recent initiatives

299

(1)

Summary

300

(1)

Effective management of contaminated land reclamations

301

(28)

Introduction

301

(1)

The pre-site work period

301

(4)

Introduction

301

(1)

Information to contractors

302

(2)

Insurance cover

304

(1)

Contact with external bodies

304

(1)

Conclusion

305

(1)

Health and Safety at Work Regulations and Legislation

305

(3)

Introduction

305

(1)

Breaches of Health and Safety Regulations

305

(1)

Consequences of information limitations

306

(2)

Regulatory requirements

308

(1)

The site investigation period

308

(7)

Introduction

308

(2)

Information to be collected

310

(1)

Conclusion

311

(4)

Quality assurance of reclamations

315

(13)

Introduction

315

(1)

Quality systems

315

(7)

Appropriate quality systems

322

(6)

Summary

328

(1)

Appendix I Soil guidelines (UK) and Dutch Intervention Values

329

(6)

Appendix II Semi-quantified risk assessment methodology

335

(2)

Appendix III Other useful guidelines and standards

337

(21)

References

358

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Contaminated Land: Problems and Solutions, Second Edition

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Table of Contents

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