The Crime That Pays

This book is the result of interview-based research with law enforcement officers and 70 convicted drug traffickers. Dr Desroches' work is thorough, finely tuned, and as interesting and intriguing as the lives of some of his respondents. He includes a review of the research literature on higher-level drug trafficking and organised crime in Canada, the United States, and England. Programmes of study that include the examination of high-risk behaviour, anomie, and criminal justice systems will also find this work useful.

Frederick J. Desroches is Professor of Sociology and Criminology and Director of Legal Studies and Criminology at St. Jerome's University, University of Waterloo.

Preface

xi

Acknowledgements

xii

Drug Trafficking: The Crime That Pays

1

(12)

Introduction

1

(1)

The Nature of Drug Trafficking

2

(1)

The Structure and Organization of Retail Drug Selling

2

(2)

The ``Crime Doesn't Pay'' Argument

4

(1)

Successful Criminal Entrepreneurs: Higher-Level Drug Traffickers

5

(1)

Research Methodology: An Exploratory Study of Higher-Level Traffickers

6

(3)

Theoretical Framework

9

(2)

Summary

11

(2)

Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime: Canadian Legislation and Case Law

13

(22)

Introduction

13

(1)

The History of Drug Legislation in Canada

13

(4)

Current Laws Regulating Drug Usage in Canada

17

(1)

The Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, 1996

18

(1)

Offences

18

(9)

Possession

18

(2)

Double-Doctoring

20

(1)

Possession for the Purposes of Trafficking and Trafficking

21

(1)

Importing and Exporting

21

(1)

Production of Substance

22

(1)

Possession of Property Obtained by Crime and Laundering

Proceeds of Crime Forfeiture of Offence-Related Property

22

(2)

Conspiracy to Traffic: Conspiracy Laws

24

(1)

Participation in Criminal Organizations: Anti-Gang (Organized Crime) Legislation

25

(2)

The Laws Related to the Use of Informants and Agents

27

(2)

Sentences under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act

29

(1)

The Corrections and Conditional Release Act: Parole Eligibility

30

(1)

Discussion

30

(2)

Summary

32

(3)

Organized Crime and Higher-Level Drug Trafficking

35

(18)

The Mafia Model of Organized Crime

35

(2)

Recent Attempts to Define Organized Crime

37

(1)

The Network Model of Organized Crime

38

(1)

Transnational Organized Crime

39

(3)

Economic Models of Organized Crime

42

(1)

Drug Trafficking as Business Enterprise

43

(1)

The Present Study: Criminal Background and Employment History

44

(2)

Friendship, Kinship, Race, and Ethnicity

46

(1)

Size and Composition of Drug-Dealing Syndicates

47

(1)

Drug Trafficking as Independent Entrepreneurship

48

(1)

Summary

49

(4)

The Motivation and Lifestyle of Higher-Level Drug Traffickers

53

(60)

Initial Involvement in Drug Trafficking

53

(3)

Learning Theories of Crime

53

(2)

Prison and Street Connections

55

(1)

Rational Choice Theory and Crime

56

(2)

Anomie Theory and Motivation

58

(4)

Case Example: Financial Setbacks---the Hotel Owner

60

(2)

Opportunity Theory and Entry into Higher-Level Drug Trafficking

62

(3)

Ethnicity and Opportunity: Contacts in Source Countries

63

(2)

Business, Employment, and Illegitimate Opportunity

65

(1)

Case Example: From Fish to Coke

65

(1)

From Retail to Wholesale: Moving Up the Ladder

66

(9)

Stages in the Move from Retail to Wholesale

67

(4)

Case Example: Street Smarts

71

(4)

Social Control Theories and Family Relationships

75

(1)

Social Bonding Theory and Crime

76

(13)

Case Example: The Ecstasy Lab

77

(8)

Morality and Techniques of Neutralization

85

(4)

The Ego and Self-Concept of Drug Traffickers

89

(4)

The Criminal Drug Dealer

89

(1)

Case Example: International Drug Smuggler

90

(2)

The Businessman Drug Dealer

92

(1)

Profits, Costs, and Losses

93

(6)

The Dealing Lifestyle

99

(7)

Spending the Money

99

(4)

Stresses Associated with a Life of Crime

103

(2)

Leading a Secret Life

105

(1)

The Failure to Get Out of Drug Dealing

106

(4)

Greed: Expanding/Elastic Desires

106

(1)

Ego and Self-Confidence

107

(1)

Identity, Power, Status, Lifestyle

108

(1)

Sense of Responsibility: Peer Pressure

108

(1)

Addiction

109

(1)

Complacency

109

(1)

Lack of Deterrence

110

(1)

Pushing One's Luck

110

(1)

Summary

110

(3)

The Modus Operandi of Higher-Level Drug Traffickers: Marketing, Organization, and Security

113

(26)

Marketing Illicit Drugs

113

(1)

Quality, Quantity, Price, Service, and Reputation

113

(3)

Relationships among Dealers

116

(1)

Partnerships

117

(2)

Modus Operandi and Security

119

(17)

Security through Violence and Intimidation

119

(2)

Security through Trust: Friendship, Kinship, and Ethnicity

121

(1)

Security through Redundancy

122

(1)

Security through Size and Structure

123

(2)

Security through Secrecy

125

(2)

Security through Information Networks

127

(4)

Security through Corruption

131

(2)

Security through Diplomacy

133

(3)

Security through Technology

136

(1)

Summary

136

(3)

The Modus Operandi of Higher-Level Drug Traffickers: Fronts, Debts, and Violence

139

(24)

Marketing and the Use of Credit: The Front

139

(8)

Principles and Precautions in Fronting

141

(1)

Norms Regulating Fronts

142

(3)

Financial and Security Risks

145

(2)

Violence among Higher-Level Traffickers

147

(6)

Case Example: Murder and Revenge

151

(2)

Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs and Violence

153

(4)

Organized Drug Syndicates and Territoriality

157

(4)

Retail Sales, Violence, and Territoriality

158

(1)

Case Example: The Mob

159

(2)

Summary

161

(2)

Police Investigations of Higher-Level Drug Traffickers

163

(44)

Introduction

163

(1)

Undercover Work and Drug Investigations: The RCMP

163

(8)

The Operations Undercover Techniques Course

164

(1)

The Training of Undercover Officers

165

(1)

The Operational Plan

166

(2)

The Cover Story

168

(1)

The Reverse Sting

169

(1)

The Threat of Violence in Undercover Work

170

(1)

Role Playing and Undercover Work: The Dangers of Going Native

171

(1)

Informants and Agents

171

(3)

The Source Witness-Protection Program

173

(1)

Surveillance

174

(5)

Physical Surveillance

174

(1)

Electronic Surveillance

175

(3)

The Surveillance Team

178

(1)

Corroborating Evidence

179

(1)

Surveillance outside Canada

179

(11)

Case Example: The Salmon Run

180

(6)

Taking Risks: Trafficking While under Police Surveillance

186

(1)

A Failure to Understand Conspiracy Laws

186

(1)

Ambiguity, Uncertainty, and Complacency

187

(1)

Ego and Overconfidence

188

(1)

Underestimating the Police

189

(1)

Greed

190

(1)

How the Police Use Conspiracy Laws

190

(3)

Money-Laundering Activities

193

(1)

Canada Customs

194

(1)

The RCMP Money-Exchange Sting in Montreal and Vancouver

195

(10)

The International Monetary Centre

195

(1)

The Vancouver ``Eyespy'' Sting

195

(10)

Summary

205

(2)

Higher-Level Drug Trafficking in Canada: Social Policy Implications

207

(12)

Drug Trafficking Research and Social Policy Implications

207

(1)

A Summary of the Findings

207

(1)

Motivation, Deterrence, and Policy Implications

208

(1)

The Risks Involved in Higher-Level Trafficking: Policy Implications

208

(1)

The Risk of Apprehension

208

(1)

The Risk of Forfeiture of Offence-Related Property

209

(1)

The Risk of Injury or Death

209

(1)

Entry into Drug Trafficking: Opportunity and Policy Implications

209

(1)

Structure and Organization of Higher-Level Drug Trafficking: Policy Implications

210

(1)

Personal Characteristics of Offenders: Implications for Sentencing, Imprisonment, and Parole

211

(1)

The Liberalization/Prohibition Debate

212

(4)

The Prohibitionist Model: Arguments against Legalization

213

(1)

The Liberalization Model: Arguments in Favour of Legalization

213

(2)

Drug-Specific Legal Reform

215

(1)

Summary

216

(3)

References

219

(14)

Case References

230

(3)

Index

233

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The Crime That Pays

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