Crystal Growth Technology

, by Hans J. Scheel (Scheel Consulting, Groenstrasse, Switzerland,); Tsuguo Fukuda (Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Materials, Tohoku University, Japan)

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ISBN: 9780471490593 | 0471490598
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 11/1/2003

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This volume deals with the technologies of crystal fabrication, of crystal machining, and of epilayer production and is the first book on industrial and scientific aspects of crystal and layer production. The major industrial crystals are treated: Si, GaAs, GaP, InP, CdTe, sapphire, oxide and halide scintillator crystals, crystals for optical, piezoelectric and microwave applications and more. Contains 29 contributions from leading crystal technologists covering the following topics: 'ˆ— General aspects of crystal growth technology 'ˆ— Silicon 'ˆ— Compound semiconductors 'ˆ— Oxides and halides 'ˆ— Crystal machining 'ˆ— Epitaxy and layer deposition Scientific and technological problems of production and machining of industrial crystals are discussed by top experts, most of them from the major growth industries and crystal growth centers. In addition, it will be useful for the users of crystals, for teachers and graduate students in materials sciences, in electronic and other functional materials, chemical and metallurgical engineering, micro-and optoelectronics including nanotechnology, mechanical engineering and precision-machining, microtechnology, and in solid-state sciences.

Contributors

xix

Preface

xxv

PART 1: GENERAL ASPECTS OF CRYSTAL GROWTH TECHNOLOGY

(186)

The Development of Crystal Growth Technology

(12)

H. J. Scheel

Abstract

(1)

Historical Introduction

(1)

The Development of Crystal-growth Methods

(5)

Crystal-growth Technology Now

(3)

Conclusion

(2)

References

(2)

Thermodynamic Fundamentals of Phase Transitions Applied to Crystal Growth Processes

(28)

P. Rudolph

Introduction

(1)

Perfect and Real Structure of Grown Crystals

(3)

The Principle of Gibbs Free Energy Minimization

(1)

Equilibrium Point-defect Concentration

(2)

Thermodynamics of Phase Equilibrium

(6)

The Phase Transition

(2)

Two-component Systems with Ideal and Real Mixing

(2)

Phase Boundaries and Surfaces

(2)

Thermodynamics of Topical Crystal Growth Problems

(11)

Mixed Crystals with Nearly Ideal Solid Solution

(3)

Systems with Compound Formation

(6)

Compositional Modulation and Ordering in Mixed Semiconductor Thin Films

(2)

Deviation from Equilibrium

(7)

Driving Force of Crystallization

(3)

Growth Mode with Two-dimensional Nucleation

(1)

References

(3)

Interface-kinetics-driven Facet Formation During Melt Growth of Oxide Crystals

(26)

S. Brandon

A. Virozub

Y. Liu

Abstract

(1)

Introduction

(2)

Model Development

(6)

Mathematical Formulation

(5)

Numerical Technique

(1)

Results and Discussion

(10)

Effect of Operating Parameters on Facetting

(3)

Interaction between Melt Flow and Facet Formation

(5)

Transparent Crystalline Phase

(1)

Positioning of Facets along the Interface

(1)

Conclusions

(7)

Acknowledgments

(1)

Note Added in Proof

(1)

References

(4)

Theoretical and Experimental Solutions of the Striation Problem

(24)

H. J. Scheel

Abstract

(1)

Introduction

(1)

Origin and Definitions of Striations

(4)

Homogeneous Crystals with Keff → 1

(2)

Segregation Phenomena and Thermal Striations

(6)

Growth of Striation-Free KTN Crystals

(2)

Alternative Approaches to Reduce Striations

(5)

Discussion

(4)

References

(4)

High-resolution X-Ray Diffraction Techniques for Structural Characterization of Silicon and other Advanced Materials

(22)

K. Lal

Introduction

(1)

High-resolution X-Ray Diffraction Techniques

(6)

Theoretical Background

(2)

High-resolution X-Ray Diffraction Experiments: A Five-crystal X-Ray Diffractometer

(4)

Evaluation of Crystalline Perfection and Characterization of Crystal Defects

100

(4)

Accurate Determination of Crystallographic Orientation

104

(4)

Measurement of Curvature or Bending of Single-crystal Wafers

108

(2)

Characterization of Process-induced Defects in Semiconductors: Implantation-induced Damage

110

(2)

Conclusions

112

(3)

Acknowledgement

112

(1)

References

112

(3)

Computational Simulations of the Growth of Crystals from Liquids

115

(24)

A. Yeckel

J. J. Derby

Introduction

115

(1)

Transport Modeling in Bulk Crystal Growth

116

(5)

Governing Equations

116

(2)

Boundary Conditions

118

(3)

Computational Issues

121

(2)

Numerical Methods

121

(1)

Software: Commercial versus Research, General versus Specialty

122

(1)

Examples of One-, Two-, and Three-dimensional Models

123

(12)

Can we still Learn from a ID Model?

123

(2)

Is 2D Modeling Routine and Accurate?

125

(4)

When are 3D Models Necessary?

129

(6)

Summary and Outlook

135

(4)

Acknowledgments

135

(1)

References

136

(3)

Heat and Mass Transfer under Magnetic Fields

139

(16)

K. Kakimoto

Abstract

139

(1)

Introduction

139

(1)

Magnetic Fields Applied to Czochralski Growth

140

(1)

Numerical Modeling

141

(2)

Vertical Magnetic Field (VMF)

143

(4)

Cusp-shaped Magnetic Fields (CMF)

147

(3)

Transverse Magnetic Fields (TMF)

150

(1)

Summary

150

(5)

Acknowledgment

151

(1)

References

152

(3)

Modeling of Technologically Important Hydrodynamics and Heat/Mass Transfer Processes during Crystal Growth

155

(32)

V. I. Polezhaev

Introduction

155

(2)

Technologically Important Hydrodynamics Processes during Crystal Growth

157

(1)

Benchmark Problem

158

(4)

Hierarchy of the Models and Codes and Summary of Benchmark Exercises

162

(10)

Gravity-driven Convection Instability and Oscillations in Benchmark Configuration

172

(1)

Convective Interaction and Instabilities in Configuration of Industrial GaAs Czochralski Growth

173

(8)

Axisymmetrical Approach: Nonlinear Coupling Fluid Flow and Control Possibilities

174

(2)

Three-Dimensional Analysis

176

(5)

Conclusions

181

(6)

Acknowledgments

182

(1)

References

182

(5)

PART 2: SILICON

187

(104)

Influence of Boron Addition on Oxygen Behavior in Silicon Melts

189

(16)

K. Terashima

Abstract

189

(1)

Introduction

189

(1)

Oxygen Behavior in Boron-doped Silicon Melts

190

(13)

Oxygen Solubility in Silicon Melt

191

(5)

Fused Quartz Dissolution Rate in Silicon Melts

196

(4)

Evaporation from Free Surface of Boron-doped Silicon Melts in Fused-quartz Crucible

200

(3)

Conclusion

203

(2)

Acknowledgments

203

(1)

References

204

(1)

Octahedral Void Defects in Czochralski Silicon

205

(20)

M. Itsumi

Background

205

(1)

Observation Methods

206

(3)

Characterization

209

(4)

Generation Mechanism

213

(2)

Elimination

215

(1)

Oxide Defect Generation

216

(3)

Concluding Remarks

219

(6)

References

222

(3)

The Control and Engineering of Intrinsic Point Defects in Silicon Wafers and Crystals

225

(26)

R. Falster

V. V. Voronkov

P. Mutti

Abstract

225

(1)

Introduction

225

(2)

Vacancy-type Defects

226

(1)

Silicon Self-interstitial-type Defects

226

(1)

The Precipitation of Oxygen

226

(1)

The Control of the Agglomeration of Intrinsic Point Defects during Crystal Growth

227

(4)

The v / G Rule for the Type of Grown-in Microdefects

227

(1)

Alternative Views to the v / G Rule

228

(1)

Void Reaction Control

229

(1)

Perfect Silicon

230

(1)

The Control of Oxygen Precipitation through the Engineering of Vacancy Concentration in Silicon Wafers: Magic Denuded Zone™ Wafers

231

(7)

`Tabula Rasa' Silicon and the Suppression of Oxygen Precipitation in Low-Vacancy-Concentration Material

231

(2)

Material `Switching' and Transfer Functions

233

(1)

Comparison of Conventional and Vacancy-Engineered Control of Oxygen Precipitation

233

(2)

The Installation of Vacancy Concentration Profiles in Thin Silicon Wafers

235

(1)

Advantages of the Use of Vacancies to Control Oxygen Precipitation in Wafers

236

(1)

The Mechanism of the Vacancy Effect on Oxygen Precipitation

236

(2)

Conclusions Drawn Regarding the Intrinsic Point-Defect Parameters taken from the Combination of Crystal Growth and MDZ Experiments

238

(4)

Recombination Rate

238

(1)

Self-interstitial Diffusivity

239

(1)

Vacancy Diffusivity

239

(1)

The Difference of Equilibrium Vacancy and Interstitial Concentrations

239

(1)

Formation Energies

240

(1)

Critical v / G Ratio

241

(1)

Vacancy Binding by Oxygen

241

(1)

Unified Schematic Pictures of Vacancy Control for Crystal Growth and Wafer Processing

242

(9)

Acknowledgments

248

(1)

References

248

(3)

The Formation of Defects and Growth Interface Shapes in CZ Silicon

251

(16)

T. Abe

Abstract

251

(1)

Introduction

251

(3)

Experiments

254

(2)

Results

256

(2)

Discussion

258

(6)

Balance Equation

258

(4)

Discussion of Voronkov's Relation

262

(1)

Interface-shape Formation

263

(1)

Conclusions

264

(3)

References

264

(3)

Silicon Crystal Growth for Photovoltaics

267

(24)

T. F. Ciszek

Introduction

267

(1)

Basic Concepts

268

(4)

The Photovoltaic Effect

268

(1)

Minority-carrier Lifetime

269

(2)

Light Absorption

271

(1)

Silicon Source Materials

272

(3)

Ingot Growth Methods and Wafering

275

(4)

Single-crystal Growth

276

(1)

Multicrystalline Growth

277

(2)

Ribbon/Sheet Growth Methods

279

(4)

Thin-Layer Growth on Substrates

283

(2)

Comparison of Growth Methods

285

(1)

Future Trends

285

(6)

References

287

(4)

PART 3: COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS

291

(116)

Fundamental and Technological Aspects of Czochralski Growth of High-quality Semi-insulating GaAs Crystals

293

(30)

P. Rudolph

M. Jurisch

Introduction

293

(4)

Historical Background

293

(2)

The Importance of SI GaAs and its Performance

295

(2)

Features and Fundamental Aspects of LEC Growth of SI GaAs Crystals

297

(16)

The Principle of Modern LEC Technique

297

(3)

Correlation between Heat Transfer, Thermomechanical Stress and Dislocation Density

300

(3)

Dislocation Patterns

303

(2)

Principles of Native-defect Control

305

(5)

Carbon Control

310

(3)

Modified Czochralski Technologies

313

(4)

Vapour-pressure-controlled Czochralski (VCz) Method

313

(2)

Fully-Encapsulated Czochralski (FEC) Growth

315

(1)

Hotwall Czochralski (HWC) Technique

316

(1)

Conclusions and Outlook

317

(6)

Acknowledgement

318

(1)

References

318

(5)

Growth of III-V and II-VI Single Crystals by the Verticalgradient-freeze Method

323

(26)

T. Asahi

K. Kainosho

K. Kohiro

A. Noda

K. Sato

O. Oda

Introduction

323

(1)

InP Crystal Growth by the VGF Method

324

(7)

GaAs Crystal Growth by the VGF Method

331

(6)

Growth of Undoped GaAs

331

(4)

Growth of Si-doped GaAs Crystals

335

(1)

Growth of Zn-doped Crystals

336

(1)

CdTe Crystal Growth by the VGF Method without Seed Crystals

337

(7)

ZnTe Crystal Growth by VGF without Seed Crystals using the High-pressure Furnace

344

(2)

Summary

346

(3)

References

346

(3)

Growth Technology of III-V Single Crystals for Production

349

(24)

T. Kawase

M. Tatsumi

Y. Nishida

Introduction

349

(1)

Properties of III-V Materials

349

(1)

Growth Technology of III-V Materials

350

(6)

HB and HGF Techniques

351

(1)

LEC Technique

352

(1)

Vapor-pressure-controlled Czochralski (VCZ) Technique

353

(2)

VB and VGF Techniques

355

(1)

Applications and Requirements for GaAs Single Crystals

356

(1)

Growth of Large Single Crystals

357

(2)

Growth of Low-Dislocation-Density GaAs Crystal

359

(2)

Control of Quality and Yield of GaAs Crystals

361

(4)

Twinning

362

(2)

Lineage

364

(1)

Control of the Electronic Quality of GaAs

365

(2)

Absolute Value of Resistivity

365

(1)

Uniformity of Microscopic Resistivity

366

(1)

Trend of Growth Methods for GaAs

367

(1)

InP

367

(2)

Summary

369

(4)

References

369

(4)

CdTe and CdZnTe Growth

373

(34)

R. Triboulet

Introduction

373

(1)

Phase Equilibria in the Cd-Te System

373

(4)

Crystal Growth versus Cd-Te Chemical Bond Characteristics

377

(4)

Crystal Growth

381

(7)

Bridgman Growth Modeling and Interface-shape Determination

388

(5)

CdZnTe Properties

393

(3)

Properties at Macroscopic and Microscopic Scale

393

(1)

Segregation

394

(2)

Industrial Growth

396

(1)

Properties and Defects of the Crystals

396

(3)

Purity, Contamination, Doping

399

(1)

Conclusions and Perspectives

400

(7)

References

400

(7)

PART 4: OXIDES AND HALIDES

407

(122)

Phase-diagram Study for Growing Electro-optic Single Crystals

409

(20)

S. Miyazawa

Abstract

409

(1)

Introduction

409

(1)

Phase-relation Study of LiTaO3

410

(8)

Preliminary Studies by X-Ray Diffractometry

411

(1)

Determination of the Congruently Melting Composition

412

(3)

Optical Quality of the Congruent LiTaO3

415

(2)

Conclusion

417

(1)

Phase-relation Study of Bi12TiO20

418

(8)

Re-examination of Phase Diagram

419

(1)

Lattice-constant Variations of the Bi12TiO20 Phase

419

(3)

New Phase Diagram

422

(2)

Growth of Long Single Crystals

424

(2)

Conclusion

426

(1)

Summary

426

(3)

Acknowledgment

427

(1)

References

427

(2)

Melt Growth of Oxide Crystals for SAW, Piezoelectric, and Nonlinear-Optical Applications

429

(16)

K. Shimamura

T. Fukuda

V. I. Chani

Introduction

429

(2)

LiTaO3 for SAW Devices

431

(3)

Langasite-family Crystals for Piezoelectric Applications

434

(5)

Nonlinear-Optical Crystals for Blue SHG

439

(2)

Summary

441

(4)

References

443

(2)

Growth of Nonlinear-optical Crystals for Laser-frequency Conversion

445

(16)

T. Sasaki

Y. Mori

M. Yoshimura

Introduction

445

(1)

Crystals Grown from Low-temperature Solutions

445

(6)

Growth of Large KDP (Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate) Crystals of Improved Laser-damage Threshold

445

(3)

Growth and Characterization of Organic NLO Crystals

448

(3)

Crystals Grown from High-temperature Solutions

451

(7)

Growth and Optical Characterization of KTP (Potassium Titanyl Phosphate) Crystal [12-14]

451

(3)

Growth and NLO Properties of Cesium Lithium Borate CLBO

454

(4)

Conclusions

458

(3)

References

458

(3)

Growth of Zirconia Crystals by Skull-Melting Technique

461

(26)

E. E. Lomonova

V. V. Osiko

Introduction

461

(1)

Physical and Technical Aspects of the Direct Radiofrequency Melting in a Cold Container (Skull Melting)

462

(5)

RF-furnaces for Zirconia Melting and Crystallization

467

(3)

Phase Relations in Zirconia Solid Solutions. Y-stabilized (YCZ) and Partially Stabilized (PSZ) Zirconia

470

(2)

Growth Processes of YCZ and PSZ Crystals

472

(3)

Structure, Defects, and Properties of YCZ and PSZ Crystals

475

(4)

Applications of YCZ and PSZ Crystals

479

(3)

Conclusion

482

(5)

Acknowledgments

484

(1)

References

484

(3)

Shaped Sapphire Production

487

(24)

L. A. Lytvynov

Introduction

487

(1)

Crystal-growth Installation

487

(1)

Growing of Crucibles

488

(4)

Growth of Complicated Shapes

492

(2)

Dice

494

(2)

Group Growth

496

(2)

Local Forming

498

(1)

Sapphire Products for Medicine

499

(3)

Improvement of Structure Quality of Profile Sapphire

502

(9)

References

509

(2)

Halogenide Scintillators: Crystal Growth and Performance

511

(18)

A. V. Gektin

B. G. Zaslavsky

Introduction

511

(1)

Modern Tendency in AIBVII Crystal Growth

511

(6)

R&D for Halogenide Crystal Perfection

511

(2)

Traditional Crystal Growth Methods

513

(1)

Automated Growth Principles and Technique

514

(3)

Modified Method of Automated Pulling of Large-size Scintillation Crystals

517

(4)

Principles of the Method

517

(1)

The Method Model and the Process Control Parameter

518

(3)

Experimental and Practical Method Realization

521

(3)

Scintillator Quality

524

(3)

Activated Scintillators

524

(1)

Undoped Scintillators

525

(2)

Conclusion

527

(2)

References

527

(2)

PART 5: CRYSTAL MACHINING

529

(92)

Advanced Slicing Techniques for Single Crystals

531

(30)

C. Hauser

P. M. Nasch

Abstract

531

(1)

Introduction

531

(1)

Geometrical Parameters

532

(1)

Survey on Slicing Methods for Silicon Single Crystal

533

(4)

Material-removal Process

537

(4)

General Comparison of Different Slicing Methods

541

(1)

Surface Damage

542

(2)

Economics

544

(4)

Crystal Orientation

548

(13)

References

557

(4)

Methods and Tools for Mechanical Processing of Anisotropic Scintillating Crystals

561

(26)

M. Lebeau

Introduction

561

(1)

Crystals

561

(4)

Machine-tools and Diamond Cutting Disks

565

(2)

Tooling for Cutting Operations

567

(8)

Traveling (Setting) Reference Base

567

(1)

Processing Reference Base

568

(1)

Positioning Tools

568

(5)

Inspection Tools

573

(2)

Tools for Lapping and Polishing Operations

575

(3)

Optical Method for Inspection of Crystal Residual Stresses

578

(7)

Conclusions and Production Forecasts

585

(2)

References

585

(2)

Plasma-CVM (Chemical Vaporization Machining)

587

(20)

Y. Mori

K. Yamamura

Y. Sano

Introduction

587

(1)

Concepts of Plasma-CVM

587

(1)

Applications of Plasma-CVM

588

(1)

Slicing

589

(5)

Slicing Machine

589

(1)

Slicing Rate

590

(1)

Kerf Loss

591

(1)

Slicing of Silicon Ingot

592

(2)

Plananzation

594

(4)

Plananzation Machine

594

(1)

Machining Properties

595

(3)

Figuring

598

(9)

Numerically Controlled Plasma-CVM System

598

(3)

Machining Properties

601

(4)

Fabrication of the Flat Mirror

605

(1)

Acknowledgements

605

(1)

References

605

(2)

Numerically Controlled EEM (Elastic Emission Machining) System for Ultraprecision Figuring and Smoothing of Aspherical Surfaces

607

(14)

Y. Mori

K. Yamauchi

K. Hirose

K. Sugiyama

K. Inagaki

H. Mimura

Introduction

607

(1)

Features and Performances

607

(3)

Atom-removal Mechanism

610

(4)

General View

610

(1)

Process Simulation and Results

611

(3)

Numerically Controlled EEM System

614

(3)

Requirement of Ultraclean Environmental Control

614

(1)

Numerically Controlled Stage System

614

(1)

EEM Heads

615

(2)

In-process Refining System of the Mixture Fluid

617

(1)

Numerical Control System

617

(2)

Concepts for Ultraprecise Figuring

617

(1)

Software for Calculating Scanning Speed

617

(1)

Performances of Numerically Controlled Processing

618

(1)

Conclusion

619

(2)

Acknowledgement

620

(1)

References

620

(1)

PART 6: EPITAXY AND LAYER DEPOSITION

621

(32)

Control of Epitaxial Growth Modes for High-performance Devices

623

(22)

H. J. Scheel

Abstract

623

(1)

Introduction

623

(1)

Seven Epitaxial Growth Modes and the Role of Growth Parameters

624

(11)

Control of Growth Modes

635

(6)

Conclusions

641

(4)

General References

642

(1)

References

642

(3)

High-rate Deposition of Amorphous Silicon Films by Atmosphericpressure Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition

645

(8)

Y. Mori

H. Kakiuchi

K. Yoshii

K. Yasutake

Abstract

645

(1)

Introduction

645

(1)

Atmospheric-Pressure Plasma CVD

646

(1)

Atmospheric Pressure, VHF Plasma

646

(1)

Utilization of Rotary Electrode

646

(1)

Experimental

647

(1)

Results and Discussion

648

(3)

Deposition Rate

648

(1)

Electrical and Optical Properties

648

(3)

Conclusion

651

(2)

Acknowledgements

651

(1)

References

651

(2)

Index

653

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