Cultivated Landscapes of Native Amazonia and the Andes

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ISBN: 9780199257690 | 0199257698
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 7/17/2003

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Cultivated Landscapes of Native Amazonia and the Andes examines Indian agriculture in South America. The focus is on field types and field technologies, including agricultural landforms such as terraces, canals, and drained fields, which have persisted for hundreds of years. What emerges is a picture of mostly successful indigenous farming practices in difficult environments--rain forests, savannahs, swamps, rugged mountains, and deserts.

List of Tables

xxvii

List of Figures

xxviii

Part I. Introduction: Fields and Associated Features

(50)

Research on Native Cultivated Landscapes in the Americas

(10)

Colonial Observations

(1)

Pre-1961 Studies

(2)

Post-1961 Research in South America

(3)

Diversity

(1)

As a Geographer and Cultural Ecologist

(3)

Classification of Field Types

(14)

Ordinary Fields

(3)

Rainfed Agriculture

(1)

Water Concentration

(1)

Agricultural Landforms: Slope Modification

(2)

Agricultural Landforms: Water-deficit Management

(5)

Floodwater and Runoff Control

(1)

Groundwater Utilization

(1)

Moisture Conservation

(1)

Canal Irrigation

(1)

Manual Irrigation

(1)

Agricultural Landforms: Drainage

(1)

Micromanagement of Soil, Water, Climate, Slope

(1)

Field Demarcation

(2)

Crops, Tools, and Soft Technology

(24)

Crops

(1)

Field Tools

(6)

Soft Technology

(17)

Organic Fertilizers

(4)

Inorganic Soil Additives

(1)

Fire

(1)

Mulching

(1)

Cropping Patterns

(5)

Fallowing

(1)

Afforestation

(1)

Pest Control

(1)

Weed Control

(1)

Other Procedures

(3)

Part II. Amazonian Cultivation

(82)

A Diversity of Habitats and Field Systems

(22)

Pre-European Conditions

(3)

The Natural versus the Anthropogenic Environment

(1)

Subsistence

(1)

Population

(1)

Riverine Habitats (Varzea)

(8)

Floodplain Heterogeneity

(2)

River Rise and Fall

(1)

River Terraces

(1)

Floodplain Cultivation

(1)

Early Descriptions

(1)

Blackwater Floodplains

(1)

The Estuarine Floodplain

(1)

The Upland Forest Habitats (Terra Firme)

(5)

Swidden Characteristics

(1)

Forager/Cultivators

(1)

Intensive Swidden

(1)

Slash/Mulch Systems

(1)

Agroforestry Systems

(1)

House Gardens

(1)

Savanna Habitats

(2)

Lowland Savanna

(1)

Upland Savanna

(1)

Apete

(1)

Multiple Habitat Exploitation

(2)

Fields of the Mojo, Campa, Bora, Shipibo, and Karinya

(27)

The Mojo: A Colonial Reconstruction

(3)

The Campa

(5)

Unstable Swiddens

(3)

The Protein Thesis

(2)

The Bora: Swidden-fallow Agroforestry

(7)

The Shipibo: Multiple Biotope Use

(7)

The Karinya: Multiple Biome Use

(5)

Pre-European Riverine Cultivation

102

(13)

The Varzeal/Terra Firme Dichotomy

102

(2)

Archaeological Evidence: Terra Preta

104

(6)

Historical Evidence

110

(1)

Agricultural Evidence

111

(2)

Complementarity

113

(2)

Pre-European Forest Cultivation

115

(18)

Stone Axes and Forest Cultivation

116

(7)

Tree Cutting

116

(3)

Agricultural Implications

119

(4)

Terra Preta

123

(1)

Possible Forms of Pre-European Forest Cultivation

124

(3)

Conclusions

127

(6)

Prehistoric Amazonian Agriculture Reconsidered: A Patch Pattern Model

127

(1)

Environmental Limitations in Amazonia: Fact or Fancy?

128

(2)

A New Synthesis

130

(3)

Part III. Andean Irrigation and Terracing

133

(80)

Irrigated Fields

135

(35)

Andean Environmental Diversity

135

(2)

Canal Irrigation

137

(15)

Irrigation Studies

138

(1)

The Distribution of Irrigation

138

(5)

Chronology

143

(1)

Early Colonial Descriptions of Irrigation Canals

144

(2)

Canal Characteristics

146

(6)

Canal Collapse and Abandonment

152

(1)

The Chicama-Moche Intervalley Canal

152

(5)

Other Water Management Features

157

(13)

Reservoirs

157

(1)

Diversion Embankments

158

(2)

Albarradas

160

(1)

Protective Dikes

160

(1)

Filtration Galleries

161

(1)

Bordered Gardens

162

(1)

Sunken Fields: Hoyas

163

(2)

Sunken Fields: Qochas

165

(1)

Seepage

166

(1)

Floodwater Farming

167

(1)

Complex Systems

167

(1)

Lomas Cultivation (Fog Oases)

168

(2)

Terraced Fields

170

(15)

Early Descriptions

170

(2)

Recent Studies

172

(1)

Chronology

172

(1)

Distribution

173

(2)

Types of Terraces

175

(6)

Cross-channel Terraces and Check Dams

176

(1)

Sloping-field Terraces

176

(2)

Bench Terraces

178

(2)

Broad-field Terraces

180

(1)

Terrace Origins

181

(1)

Terrace Functions

182

(1)

Terrace Abandonment

183

(2)

Terrace and Irrigation Origins and Abandonment in the Colca Valley

185

(28)

The Colca Valley

186

(3)

The Colca Terraces

189

(3)

The Soil Factor

192

(1)

Terrace Origins

193

(6)

The Chijra Area Terraces

194

(3)

The Japo Basin Terraces

197

(1)

Terrace Chronology

198

(1)

Changing Terrace Forms

199

(2)

Terrace Abandonment

201

(12)

Mapping Abandonment

201

(3)

Time of Abandonment

204

(1)

Theories of Abandonment

204

(1)

Factors of Abandonment

205

(8)

Part IV. Raised and Drained Fields

213

(78)

Lost Systems of Cultivation

215

(24)

Discovery

215

(1)

Early Reports

216

(3)

Characteristics of Raised Fields

219

(3)

The Raised and Drained Fields of South America

222

(13)

San Jorge, Colombia

222

(1)

Venezuelan Llanos

222

(4)

Guianas Coast

226

(1)

Guayas Basin, Coastal Ecuador

227

(6)

Sabana de Bogota, Colombia

233

(1)

Northern Highland Ecuador

233

(1)

Casma Valley, Coastal Peru

234

(1)

Also in South America

235

(1)

Raised Fields Elsewhere

235

(1)

Raised-field Experiments, Restoration, and Destruction

236

(3)

The Mojos Raised Fields

239

(15)

Types of Fields

241

(5)

Platform Fields

242

(1)

Ridged Fields

243

(1)

Mound Fields

244

(1)

Gridiron Fields

245

(1)

Numbers of Fields

246

(1)

Cultivation of Raised Fields

247

(3)

The Antiquity of Savanna Farming

250

(1)

Recent Research

251

(1)

Experimental Raised Fields

252

(2)

The Titicaca Raised Fields

254

(24)

The Distribution of Raised Fields near Lake Titicaca

255

(3)

The Classification and Description of Field Patterns

258

(4)

Open Checkerboard

258

(2)

Irregular Embanked Pattern

260

(1)

Riverine Pattern

260

(1)

Linear Pattern

261

(1)

Ladder Pattern

262

(1)

Combed Fields of Pampa Koani

262

(1)

The Cultivation of Raised Fields

262

(3)

The Functions of Raised Fields

265

(2)

The Antiquity of the Titicaca Raised Fields

267

(2)

Recent Archaeological Research

269

(9)

Functions

269

(2)

Productivity

271

(1)

Labor Inputs

271

(1)

The Extent of Raised Fields

271

(1)

Population Estimates

272

(1)

Raised Fields and the Tiwanaku State

273

(1)

Chronology of Changing Raised-field Importance

273

(2)

Raised-field Restoration

275

(3)

Ditched Fields, Drainage Canals, and River Canalization

278

(13)

Llanos de Mojos

278

(2)

Northern Andes

280

(1)

The Karinya, Orinoco Llanos

281

(6)

La Tigra, Orinoco Llanos

287

(1)

River Channel Canalization

288

(3)

Part V. Conclusion

291

(16)

Implications of Indigenous Agricultural Technology

293

(14)

Changing Perceptions of Indian Agriculture

294

(1)

The People without a Prehistory

295

(1)

Origins of Field Types

295

(1)

Agrarian Collapse

296

(1)

Colonial Changes

297

(1)

Persistence of Indian Field Technology

297

(1)

Survival of Relic Fields and Landscapes

298

(1)

Field Form, Function, and Risk

299

(1)

Agricultural Intensification

299

(2)

Carrying Capacity

301

(1)

Environmental Limitations, Agriculture, and Culture

301

(1)

Sustainability and Degradation

302

(2)

Andean-Amazonian Comparisons

304

(1)

Traditional Knowledge

305

(2)

Appendix 1A. Cultivated Plants of South America

307

(14)

Appendix 1B. Roster of Cultivated Plants by Species Name

321

(3)

References

324

(43)

Index

367

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Cultivated Landscapes of Native Amazonia and the Andes

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials