Data Modeling Essentials

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ISBN: 9780126445510 | 0126445516
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 11/4/2004

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Data Modeling Essentials, Third Edition provides expert tutelage for data modelers, business analysts and systems designers at all levels. Beginning with the basics, this book provides a thorough grounding in theory before guiding the reader through the various stages of applied data modeling and database design. Later chapters address advanced subjects, including business rules, data warehousing, enterprise-wide modeling and data management. The third edition of this popular book retains its distinctive hallmarks of readability and usefulness, but has been given significantly expanded coverage and reorganized for greater reader comprehension. Authored by two leaders in the field, Data Modeling Essentials, Third Edition is the ideal reference for professionals and students looking for a real-world perspective. Thorough coverage of the fundamentals and relevant theory. Recognition and support for the creative side of the process. Expanded coverage of applied data modeling includes new chapters on logical and physical database design. New material describing a powerful technique for model verification. Unique coverage of the practical and human aspects of modeling, such as working with business specialists, managing change, and resolving conflict. Extensive online component including course notes and other teaching aids (www.mkp.com). UML diagrams now available! Visit the companion site for more details. Click here to view a book review by Steve Hoberman!

Preface

xxiii

Part I The Basics

(228)

What Is Data Modeling?

(30)

Introduction

(1)

A Data-Centered Perspective

(1)

A Simple Example

(2)

Design, Choice, and Creativity

(2)

Why Is the Data Model Important?

(2)

Leverage

(1)

Conciseness

(1)

Data Quality

(1)

Summary

(1)

What Makes a Good Data Model?

(5)

Completeness

(1)

NonRedundancy

(1)

Enforcement of Business Rules

(1)

Data Reusability

(1)

Stability and Flexibility

(1)

Elegance

(1)

Communication

(1)

Integration

(1)

Conflicting Objectives

(1)

Performance

(1)

Database Design Stages and Deliverables

(4)

Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Data Models

(1)

The Three-Schema Architecture and Terminology

(3)

Where Do Data Models Fit In?

(3)

Process-Driven Approaches

(1)

Data-Driven Approaches

(2)

Parallel (Blended) Approaches

(1)

Object-Oriented Approaches

(1)

Prototyping Approaches

(1)

Agile Methods

(1)

Who Should Be Involved in Data Modeling?

(1)

Is Data Modeling Still Relevant?

(5)

Costs and Benefits of Data Modeling

(1)

Data Modeling and Packaged Software

(1)

Data Integration

(1)

Data Warehouses

(1)

Personal Computing and User-Developed Systems

(1)

Data Modeling and XML

(1)

Summary

(1)

Alternative Approaches to Data Modeling

(1)

Terminology

(1)

Where to from Here?---An Overview of Part I

(1)

Summary

(1)

Basics of Sound Structure

(32)

Introduction

(1)

An Informal Example of Normalization

(2)

Relational Notation

(1)

A More Complex Example

(3)

Determining Columns

(3)

One Fact per Column

(1)

Hidden Data

(1)

Derivable Data

(1)

Determining the Primary Key

(2)

Repeating Groups and First Normal Form

(4)

Limit on Maximum Number of Occurrences

(1)

Data Reusability and Program Complexity

(1)

Recognizing Repeating Groups

(1)

Removing Repeating Groups

(1)

Determining the Primary Key of the New Table

(1)

First Normal Form

(1)

Second and Third Normal Forms

(6)

Problems with Tables in First Normal Form

(1)

Eliminating Redundancy

(1)

Determinants

(3)

Third Normal Form

(2)

Definitions and a Few Refinements

(7)

Determinants and Functional Dependency

(1)

Primary Keys

(1)

Candidate Keys

(1)

A More Formal Definition of Third Normal Form

(1)

Foreign Keys

(1)

Referential Integrity

(1)

Update Anomalies

(1)

Denormalization and Unnormalization

(1)

Column and Table Names

(1)

Choice, Creativity, and Normalization

(2)

Terminology

(1)

Summary

(2)

The Entity-Relationship Approach

(46)

Introduction

(1)

A Diagrammatic Representation

(7)

The Basic Symbols: Boxes and Arrows

(1)

Diagrammatic Representation of Foreign Keys

(1)

Interpreting the Diagram

(1)

Optionality

(1)

Verifying the Model

(1)

Redundant Arrows

(1)

The Top-Down Approach: Entity-Relationship Modeling

(4)

Developing the Diagram Top Down

(1)

Terminology

(1)

Entity Classes

(6)

Entity Diagramming Convention

(1)

Entity Class Naming

(2)

Entity Class Definitions

(2)

Relationships

(22)

Relationship Diagramming Conventions

(5)

Many-to-Many Relationships

(5)

One-to-One Relationships

(1)

Self-Referencing Relationships

(3)

Relationships Involving Three or More Entity Classes

(2)

Transferability

(4)

Dependent and Independent Entity Classes

102

(1)

Relationship Names

103

(1)

Attributes

104

(1)

Attribute Identification and Definition

104

(1)

Primary Keys and the Conceptual Model

105

(1)

Myths and Folklore

105

(1)

Entity Classes without Relationships

106

(1)

Allowed Combinations of Cardinality and Optionality

106

(1)

Creativity and E-R Modeling

106

(3)

Summary

109

(2)

Subtypes and Supertypes

111

(34)

Introduction

111

(1)

Different Levels of Generalization

111

(2)

Rules versus Stability

113

(2)

Using Subtypes and Supertypes

115

(1)

Subtypes and Supertypes as Entity Classes

116

(1)

Naming Subtypes

117

(1)

Diagramming Conventions

117

(2)

Boxes in Boxes

117

(1)

UML Conventions

118

(1)

Using Tools That Do Not Support Subtyping

119

(1)

Definitions

119

(1)

Attributes of Supertypes and Subtypes

119

(1)

Nonoverlapping and Exhaustive

120

(3)

Overlapping Subtypes and Roles

123

(4)

Ignoring Real-World Overlaps

123

(1)

Modeling Only the Supertype

124

(1)

Modeling the Roles as Participation in Relationships

124

(1)

Using Role Entity Classes and One-to-One Relationships

125

(1)

Multiple Partitions

126

(1)

Hierarchy of Subtypes

127

(1)

Benefits of Using Subtypes and Supertypes

128

(6)

Creativity

129

(1)

Presentation: Level of Detail

129

(1)

Communication

130

(2)

Input to the Design of Views

132

(1)

Classifying Common Patterns

132

(1)

Divide and Conquer

133

(1)

When Do We Stop Supertyping and Subtyping?

134

(4)

Differences in Identifiers

134

(1)

Different Attribute Groups

135

(1)

Different Relationships

135

(1)

Different Processes

136

(1)

Migration from One Subtype to Another

136

(1)

Communication

136

(1)

Capturing Meaning and Rules

137

(1)

Summary

137

(1)

Generalization of Relationships

138

(4)

Generalizing Several One-to-Many Relationships to a Single Many-to-Many Relationship

138

(1)

Generalizing Several One-to-Many Relationships to a Single One-to-Many Relationship

139

(2)

Generalizing One-to-Many and Many-to-Many Relationships

141

(1)

Theoretical Background

142

(1)

Summary

143

(2)

Attributes and Columns

145

(38)

Introduction

145

(1)

Attribute Definition

146

(1)

Attribute Disaggregation: One Fact per Attribute

147

(5)

Simple Aggregation

148

(2)

Conflated Codes

150

(1)

Meaningful Ranges

151

(1)

Inappropriate Generalization

151

(1)

Types of Attributes

152

(14)

DBMS Datatypes

152

(2)

The Attribute Taxonomy in Detail

154

(4)

Attribute Domains

158

(4)

Column Datatype and Length Requirements

162

(4)

Conversion Between External and Internal Representations

166

(1)

Attribute Names

166

(5)

Objectives of Standardizing Attribute Names

166

(2)

Some Guidelines for Attribute Naming

168

(3)

Attribute Generalization

171

(9)

Options and Trade-Offs

171

(1)

Attribute Generalization Resulting from Entity Generalization

172

(1)

Attribute Generalization within Entity Classes

173

(4)

``First Among Equals''

177

(1)

Limits to Attribute Generalization

178

(2)

Summary

180

(3)

Primary Keys and Identity

183

(24)

Basic Requirements and Trade-Offs

183

(2)

Basic Technical Criteria

185

(6)

Applicability

185

(1)

Uniqueness

186

(2)

Minimality

188

(1)

Stability

189

(2)

Surrogate Keys

191

(3)

Performance and Programming Issues

191

(1)

Matching Real-World Identifiers

191

(1)

Should Surrogate Keys Be Visible?

192

(1)

Subtypes and Surrogate Keys

193

(1)

Structured Keys

194

(7)

When to Use Structured Keys

196

(1)

Programming and Structured Keys

197

(1)

Performance Issues with Structured Keys

198

(1)

Running Out of Numbers

199

(2)

Multiple Candidate Keys

201

(1)

Choosing a Primary Key

201

(1)

Normalization Issues

201

(1)

Guidelines for Choosing Keys

202

(2)

Tables Implementing Independent Entity Classes

202

(1)

Tables Implementing Dependent Entity Classes and Many-to-Many Relationships

203

(1)

Partially-Null Keys

204

(2)

Summary

206

(1)

Extensions and Alternatives

207

(22)

Introduction

207

(2)

Extensions to the Basic E-R Approach

209

(7)

Introduction

209

(1)

Advanced Attribute Concepts

210

(6)

The Chen E-R Approach

216

(4)

The Basic Conventions

216

(1)

Relationships with Attributes

217

(1)

Relationships Involving Three or More Entity Classes

217

(1)

Roles

218

(1)

The Weak Entity Concept

219

(1)

Chen Conventions in Practice

220

(1)

Using UML Object Class Diagrams

220

(7)

A Conceptual Data Model in UML

221

(1)

Advantages of UML

222

(5)

Object Role Modeling

227

(1)

Summary

228

(1)

Part II Putting It Together

229

(160)

Organizing the Data Modeling Task

231

(20)

Data Modeling in the Real World

231

(2)

Key Issues in Project Organization

233

(5)

Recognition of Data Modeling

233

(1)

Clear Use of the Data Model

234

(1)

Access to Users and Other Business Stakeholders

234

(1)

Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Models

235

(1)

Cross-Checking with the Process Model

236

(1)

Appropriate Tools

237

(1)

Roles and Responsibilities

238

(2)

Partitioning Large Projects

240

(2)

Maintaining the Model

242

(6)

Examples of Complex Changes

242

(5)

Managing Change in the Modeling Process

247

(1)

Packaging It Up

248

(1)

Summary

249

(2)

The Business Requirements

251

(22)

Purpose of the Requirements Phase

251

(2)

The Business Case

253

(1)

Interviews and Workshops

254

(4)

Should You Model in Interviews and Workshops?

255

(1)

Interviews with Senior Managers

256

(1)

Interviews with Subject Matter Experts

257

(1)

Facilitated Workshops

257

(1)

Riding the Trucks

258

(1)

Existing Systems and Reverse Engineering

259

(2)

Process Models

261

(1)

Object Class Hierarchies

261

(9)

Classifying Object Classes

263

(2)

A Typical Set of Top-Level Object Classes

265

(2)

Developing an Object Class Hierarchy

267

(3)

Potential Issues

270

(1)

Advantages of the Object Class Hierarchy Technique

270

(1)

Summary

270

(3)

Conceptual Data Modeling

273

(48)

Designing Real Models

273

(2)

Learning from Designers in Other Disciplines

275

(1)

Starting the Modeling

276

(1)

Patterns and Generic Models

277

(8)

Using Patterns

277

(1)

Using a Generic Model

278

(1)

Adapting Generic Models from Other Applications

279

(3)

Developing a Generic Model

282

(2)

When There Is Not a Generic Model

284

(1)

Bottom-Up Modeling

285

(3)

Top-Down Modeling

288

(1)

When the Problem Is Too Complex

288

(2)

Hierarchies, Networks, and Chains

290

(5)

Hierarchies

291

(2)

Networks (Many-to-Many Relationships)

293

(2)

Chains (One-to-One Relationships)

295

(1)

One-to-One Relationships

295

(5)

Distinct Real-World Concepts

296

(1)

Separating Attribute Groups

297

(1)

Transferable One-to-One Relationships

298

(1)

Self-Referencing One-to-One Relationships

299

(1)

Support for Creativity

299

(1)

Developing Entity Class Definitions

300

(1)

Handling Exceptions

301

(1)

The Right Attitude

302

(3)

Being Aware

303

(1)

Being Creative

303

(1)

Analyzing or Designing

303

(1)

Being Brave

304

(1)

Being Understanding and Understood

304

(1)

Evaluating the Model

305

(1)

Direct Review of Data Model Diagrams

306

(2)

Comparison with the Process Model

308

(1)

Testing the Model with Sample Data

308

(1)

Prototypes

309

(1)

The Assertions Approach

309

(10)

Naming Conventions

310

(1)

Rules for Generating Assertions

311

(8)

Summary

319

(2)

Logical Database Design

321

(38)

Introduction

321

(1)

Overview of the Transformations Required

322

(3)

Table Specification

325

(9)

The Standard Transformation

325

(1)

Exclusion of Entity Classes from the Database

325

(1)

Classification Entity Classes

325

(1)

Many-to-Many Relationship Implementation

326

(2)

Relationships Involving More Than Two Entity Classes

328

(1)

Supertype/Subtype Implementation

328

(6)

Basic Column Definition

334

(7)

Attribute Implementation: The Standard Transformation

334

(1)

Category Attribute Implementation

335

(1)

Derivable Attributes

336

(1)

Attributes of Relationships

336

(1)

Complex Attributes

337

(1)

Multivalued Attribute Implementation

337

(2)

Additional Columns

339

(1)

Column Datatypes

340

(1)

Column Nullability

340

(1)

Primary Key Specification

341

(1)

Foreign Key Specification

342

(12)

One-to-Many Relationship Implementation

343

(3)

One-to-One Relationship Implementation

346

(1)

Derivable Relationships

347

(1)

Optional Relationships

348

(2)

Overlapping Foreign Keys

350

(2)

Split Foreign Keys

352

(2)

Table and Column Names

354

(1)

Logical Data Model Notations

355

(2)

Summary

357

(2)

Physical Database Design

359

(30)

Introduction

359

(2)

Inputs to Database Design

361

(1)

Options Available to the Database Designer

362

(1)

Design Decisions Which Do Not Affect Program Logic

363

(9)

Indexes

363

(7)

Data Storage

370

(2)

Memory Usage

372

(1)

Crafting Queries to Run Faster

372

(2)

Locking

373

(1)

Logical Schema Decisions

374

(10)

Alternative Implementation of Relationships

374

(1)

Table Splitting

374

(2)

Table Merging

376

(1)

Duplication

377

(1)

Denormalization

378

(1)

Ranges

379

(1)

Hierarchies

380

(2)

Integer Storage of Dates and Times

382

(1)

Additional Tables

383

(1)

Views

384

(2)

Views of Supertypes and Subtypes

385

(1)

Inclusion of Derived Attributes in Views

385

(1)

Denormalization and Views

385

(1)

Views of Split and Merged Tables

386

(1)

Summary

386

(3)

Part III Advanced Topics

389

(130)

Advanced Normalization

391

(26)

Introduction

391

(1)

Introduction to the Higher Normal Forms

392

(2)

Common Misconceptions

392

(2)

Boyce-Codd Normal Form

394

(4)

Example of Structure in 3NF but not in BCNF

394

(2)

Definition of BCNF

396

(1)

Enforcement of Rules versus BCNF

397

(1)

A Note on Domain Key Normal Form

398

(1)

Fourth Normal Form (4NF) and Fifth Normal Form (5NF)

398

(9)

Data in BCNF but not in 4NF

399

(2)

Fifth Normal Form (5NF)

401

(3)

Recognizing 4NF and 5NF Situations

404

(1)

Checking for 4NF and 5NF with the Business Specialist

405

(2)

Beyond 5NF: Splitting Tables Based on Candidate Keys

407

(1)

Other Normalization Issues

408

(7)

Normalization and Redundancy

408

(2)

Reference Tables Produced by Normalization

410

(1)

Selecting the Primary Key after Removing Repeating Groups

411

(3)

Sequence of Normalization and Cross-Table Anomalies

414

(1)

Advanced Normalization in Perspective

415

(1)

Summary

416

(1)

Modeling Business Rules

417

(34)

Introduction

417

(1)

Types of Business Rules

418

(2)

Data Rules

418

(2)

Process Rules

420

(1)

What Rules are Relevant to the Data Modeler?

420

(1)

Discovery and Verification of Business Rules

420

(2)

Cardinality Rules

420

(1)

Other Data Validation Rules

421

(1)

Data Derivation Rules

421

(1)

Documentation of Business Rules

422

(5)

Documentation in an E-R Diagram

422

(1)

Documenting Other Rules

422

(2)

Use of Subtypes to Document Rules

424

(3)

Implementing Business Rules

427

(19)

Where to Implement Particular Rules

428

(5)

Implementation Options: A Detailed Example

433

(3)

Implementing Mandatory Relationships

436

(2)

Referential Integrity

438

(1)

Restricting an Attribute to a Discrete Set of Values

439

(3)

Rules Involving Multiple Attributes

442

(1)

Recording Data That Supports Rules

442

(1)

Rules That May Be Broken

443

(2)

Enforcement of Rules Through Primary Key Selection

445

(1)

Rules on Recursive Relationships

446

(4)

Types of Rules on Recursive Relationships

447

(2)

Documenting Rules on Recursive Relationships

449

(1)

Implementing Constraints on Recursive Relationships

449

(1)

Analogous Rules in Many-to-Many Relationships

450

(1)

Summary

450

(1)

Time-Dependent Data

451

(24)

The Problem

451

(1)

When Do We Add the Time Dimensions?

452

(1)

Audit Trails and Snapshots

452

(10)

The Basic Audit Trail Approach

453

(5)

Handling Nonnumeric Data

458

(1)

The Basic Snapshot Approach

458

(4)

Sequences and Verisions

462

(1)

Handling Deletions

463

(1)

Archiving

463

(1)

Modeling Time-Dependent Relationships

464

(5)

One-to-Many Relationships

464

(2)

Many-to-Many Relationships

466

(2)

Self-Referencing Relationships

468

(1)

Date Tables

469

(1)

Temporal Business Rules

469

(4)

Changes to the Data Structure

473

(1)

Putting It into Practice

473

(1)

Summary

474

(1)

Modeling for Data Warehouses and Data Marts

475

(24)

Introduction

475

(3)

Characteristics of Data Warehouses and Data Marts

478

(2)

Data Integration: Working with Existing Databases

478

(1)

Loads Rather Than Updates

478

(1)

Less Predictable Database ``Hits''

479

(1)

Complex Queries---Simple Interface

479

(1)

History

480

(1)

Summarization

480

(1)

Quality Criteria for Warehouse and Mart Models

480

(3)

Completeness

480

(1)

Nonredundancy

481

(1)

Enforcement of Business Rules

482

(1)

Data Reusability

482

(1)

Stability and Flexibility

482

(1)

Simplicity and Elegance

483

(1)

Communication Effectiveness

483

(1)

Performance

483

(1)

The Basic Design Principle

483

(1)

Modeling for the Data Warehouse

484

(4)

An Initial Model

484

(1)

Understanding Existing Data

485

(1)

Determining Requirements

485

(1)

Determining Sources and Dealing with Differences

485

(2)

Shaping Data for Data Marts

487

(1)

Modeling for the Data Mart

488

(8)

The Basic Challenge

488

(1)

Multidimensional Databases, Stars and Snowflakes

488

(6)

Modeling Time-Dependent Data

494

(2)

Summary

496

(3)

Enterprise Data Models and Data Management

499

(20)

Introduction

499

(1)

Data Management

500

(3)

Problems of Data Mismanagement

500

(1)

Managing Data as a Shared Resource

501

(1)

The Evolution of Data Management

501

(2)

Classification of Existing Data

503

(1)

A Target for Planning

504

(2)

A Context for Specifying New Databases

506

(2)

Determining Scope and Interfaces

506

(1)

Incorporating the Enterprise Data Model in the Development Life Cycle

506

(2)

Guidance for Database Design

508

(1)

Input to Business Planning

508

(1)

Specification of an Enterprise Database

509

(2)

Characteristics of Enterprise Data Models

511

(1)

Developing an Enterprise Data Model

512

(4)

The Development Cycle

512

(1)

Partitioning the Task

513

(1)

Inputs to the Task

514

(1)

Expertise Requirements

515

(1)

External Standards

515

(1)

Choice, Creativity, and Enterprise Data Models

516

(1)

Summary

517

(2)

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Data Modeling Essentials

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