Diffraction Gratings and Applications

$Diffraction Gratings and Applications by Loewen,Erwin G., 9780824799236$

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ISBN: 9780824799236 | 0824799232
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Copyright: 5/8/1997

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"Offers and up-to-date assessment of the entire field of diffraction gratings, including history, physics, manufacture, testing, and instrument design. Furnishes--for the first time in a single-source reference--a thorough review of efficiency behavior, examining echelles as well as concave, binary, transmission, fiber, and waveguide gratings."

From the Series Editor

(2)

Brian J. Thompson

Preface

vii

Chapter 1. A Brief History of Spectral Analysis

(24)

1.1 Work Before the Year 1800

(1)

1.2 The Early Work in Gratings

(1)

1.3 The Beginnings of Spectral Analysis

(2)

1.4 Nobert

(1)

1.5 Kirchhoff and Bunsen

(1)

1.6 Georg Quincke

(1)

1.7 Progress in Solar Spectroscopy

(1)

1.8 The Era of Rowland

(1)

1.9 Origin of Spectral Lines

(1)

1.10 The Vacuum UV

(1)

1.11 Some Special Effects

(1)

1.12 Some Historical Aspects of Ruled Gratings

(1)

1.12.1 Blazing and Efficiency

(1)

1.12.2 Defects of Grating Ruling

(1)

1.13 Spectrographs and Spectrophotometers

(6)

1.13.1 Infrared Spectrometry

(1)

1.13.2 Raman Spectrometry

(1)

1.13.3 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry

(1)

1.13.4 Fluorescence Spectrometry

(1)

1.13.5 Colorimetry

(1)

1.14 Transformation of the Field to the Present Day

(1)

References

(6)

Chapter 2. Fundamental Properties of Gratings

(32)

2.1 The Grating Equation

(3)

2.2 Propagating and Evanescent Orders

(2)

2.3 Dispersion

(3)

2.4 Free Spectral Range

(1)

2.5 Passing-Off of Orders

(1)

2.6 Guided Waves

(1)

2.7 Diffraction Efficiency

(7)

2.7.1 Definition

(1)

2.7.2 Classical Model of Grating Efficiency

(2)

2.7.3 Reciprocity Theorem and Symmetry with Respect to Littrow Mount

(1)

2.7.4 Perfect Blazing - Does It Really Exist?

(3)

2.8 Resolution

(2)

2.9 Mountings

(3)

2.10 Some Electromagnetic Characteristics

(1)

2.10.1 Energy Flow (Poynting) Vector

(1)

2.10.2 Electromagnetic Energy Density

(1)

2.11 Two Simple Methods of Determining the Grating Frequency

(1)

2.12 Pulse Compression by Diffraction Gratings

(4)

References

(1)

Additional Reading

(4)

Chapter 3: The Types of Diffraction Gratings

(14)

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 Amplitude and Phase Gratings

(1)

3.3 Phase and Relief Gratings

(1)

3.4 Reflection and Transmission Gratings

(1)

3.5 Symmetrical and Blazed Gratings

(1)

3.6 Ruled, Holographic and Lithographic Gratings

(1)

3.7 Plane and Concave Gratings

(1)

3.8 Bragg Type and Raman-Nath Type Gratings

(1)

3.9 Waveguide Gratings

(1)

3.10 Fiber Gratings

(2)

3.11 Binary Gratings

(1)

3.12 Photonic Crystals

(1)

3.13 Gratings for Special Purposes

(2)

3.13.1 Filter Gratings

(1)

3.13.2 Gratings for Electron Microscope and Scanning Microscope Calibration

(1)

3.13.3 Electron Interaction Gratings

(1)

3.13.4 Rocket and Satellite Spectroscopy

(1)

3.13.5 Metrology

(1)

3.13.6 Synchrotron Monochromators

(1)

3.13.7 X-Ray Gratings

(1)

3.13.8 Chemical/Biological Monitoring

(1)

3.14 "Good" and "Bad" Gratings

(1)

References

(2)

Chapter 4: Efficiency Behavior of Plane Reflection Gratings

(78)

4.1 Introduction

(3)

4.2 General Rules

(7)

4.2.1 Reflection Coatings

(1)

4.2.2 Scalar Behavior of Reflection Gratings

(5)

4.2.3 Gratings Supporting Only Two Diffraction Orders: The Equivalence Rule

(1)

4.3 Absolute Efficiencies of 1200 gr/mm Aluminum Echelettes

(13)

4.3.1 Discussion of Efficiency Behavior of 1200 gr/mm Echelettes

(7)

4.3.2 Reflection Efficiencies of 1200 gr/mm Echelettes in Orders 2, 3 and 4

(1)

4.3.3 Effect of A.D. on Peak Efficiency Values and Location in Orders Two to Four of 1200 gr/mm Echelettes

(6)

4.4 Reflection Efficiencies of Echelettes at High Groove Frequencies and the Roles of Aluminum vs. Gold and Silver Coatings

(12)

4.5 Effect of Groove Apex Angle on Echelette Efficiency

106

(1)

4.6 Plane Sinusoidal Reflection Grating Behavior

106

(19)

4.6.1 Absolute Efficiency of Plane 1200 gr/mm Aluminum Sinusoidal Gratings

108

(10)

4.6.2 Absolute Efficiency of 1200 gr/mm Sinusoidal Reflection Gratings in Orders 2 to 4

118

(1)

4.6.3 Absolute Efficiency of Aluminum Sinusoidal Gratings at Higher Groove Frequencies (1800, 2400, 3600 gr/mm)

118

(7)

4.6.4 Absolute Efficiency of Higher Groove Frequency Sinusoidal Gratings with Silver with Silver Overcoating

125

(1)

4.6.5 Absolute Efficiency of Higher Groove Frequency Sinusoidal Gratings with Gold Overcoating

125

(1)

4.7 The Efficiency Surface

125

(7)

4.8 Efficiency Behavior of Very Deep Gratings

132

(4)

4.9 Efficiency Behavior in Grazing Incidence

136

(3)

4.10 X-Ray Gratings

139

(2)

4.11 Single Wavelength Efficiency Peak in Unpolarized Light

141

(1)

4.12 Conclusions

142

(1)

References

143

(2)

Additional Reading

145

(1)

X-Ray Gratings

146

(3)

Chapter 5: Transmission Gratings

149

(42)

5.1 Introduction

149

(1)

5.2 Transmission Grating Physics

150

(3)

5.3 Scalar Transmission Efficiency Behavior

153

(1)

5.4 Efficiency Behavior of Blazed Transmission Gratings

154

(1)

5.5 Transmission Grating Prisms

156

(2)

5.6 Fresnel Lenses and Zone Plates

158

(9)

5.6.1 Geometrical Properties of Plane Lenses

159

(2)

5.6.2 Imaging Properties

161

(1)

5.6.3 Diffraction Efficiency

162

(5)

5.7 Blazed Transmission Gratings as Beam Dividers

167

(1)

5.8 Trapezoidal Gratings as Beam Splitters

168

(4)

5.9 Multiple Order Transmission Gratings (Fan-Out Gratings)

172

(7)

5.10 Bragg Transmission Gratings

179

(3)

5.11 Transmission Gratings Under Total Internal Reflection

182

(2)

5.12 Zero Order Diffraction (ZOD) Microimages

184

(2)

5.13 Ronchi Rulings

186

(2)

References

188

(1)

Additional Reading

189

(2)

Chapter 6: Echelle Gratings

191

(62)

6.1 Introduction

191

(2)

6.1.1 History

192

(1)

6.2 Production of Echelles

193

(1)

6.3 Physics of Echelles

194

(6)

6.3.1 The Grating Equation

194

(1)

6.3.2 Angular Dispersion

195

(1)

6.3.3 Free Spectral Range

196

(2)

6.3.4 Resolution

198

(1)

6.3.5 Immersion of Echelles

198

(2)

Anamorphic Immersion System

199

(1)

6.4 Efficiency Behavior of Echelles

200

(32)

6.4.1 Scalar Model for Efficiency

202

(2)

6.4.2 Rigorous Electromagetic Efficiency Theory

204

(1)

6.4.3 Efficiency Behavior in High Orders

205

(6)

6.4.4 Efficiency Behavior in Medium Orders

211

(6)

6.4.5 Efficiency Behavior in Low Orders

217

(5)

6.4.6 Confirmation of Theory

222

(4)

6.4.7 Efficiency Behavior in Spectrometer Modes

226

(5)

6.4.8 Effects of Severe Groove Shape Disturbance

231

(1)

6.4.9 A Useful Role for Anomalies

231

(1)

6.5 The Role of Overcoatings

232

(1)

6.6 Instrument Design Concepts

233

(9)

6.6.1 Choice of Echelle

233

(1)

6.6.2 Cross Dispersion: Prisms vs. Gratings

234

(1)

6.6.3 Examples of Echelle Instruments

235

(7)

UV Rocket Spectrograph

237

(1)

HIRES: High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer

238

(1)

Compact High Resolution Spectrograph

238

(3)

Ultra-Short Wavelength Satellite Spectrograph

241

(1)

6.7 Maximum Resolution Systems

242

(3)

6.7.1 The MEGA Spectrometer

243

(2)

6.8 Transmission Echelles

245

(1)

6.9 Comparing Echelles with Holographic Gratings

246

(1)

References

247

(2)

Additional Reading

249

(4)

Chapter 7: Concave Gratings

253

(32)

7.1 Introduction

253

(2)

7.2 Aberrations in Concave Gratings

255

(9)

7.2.1 Aberration Function of Concave Gratings

255

(4)

7.2.2 Aberrations of Concave Diffraction Gratings

259

(5)

Astigmatism

261

(1)

Coma

262

(1)

Spherical Aberration

263

(1)

7.3 Focal Curves

264

(5)

7.3.1 Definition and Properties

264

(2)

7.3.2 Types of Focal Curves

266

(3)

7.4 Grating Image Deformation Estimation and Optimization: Flat-Field Spectrograph and Monochromator

269

(3)

7.5 Types of Concave Gratings

272

(5)

7.5.1 Schemes for Holographic Recording of Concave Gratings

272

(4)

7.5.2 Commercial Types of Concave Gratings and Their Design

276

(1)

7.6 Efficiency Behavior of Concave Gratings

277

(3)

7.6.1 Efficiency of Holographic Concave Gratings

279

(1)

7.6.2 Blazed Concave Gratings

280

(1)

References

280

(2)

Additional Reading

282

(3)

Chapter 8: Surface Waves and Grating Anomalies

285

(38)

8.1 Grating Anomalies

285

(3)

8.2 Phenomenological Approach

288

(8)

8.2.1 Guided Wave and a Pole of the Scattering Matrix

291

(1)

8.2.2 Pole of the Scattering Matrix and Diffraction Efficiencies

292

(4)

8.3 Types of Surface Waves

296

(1)

8.4 Influence of Surface Waves on Metallic Grating Properties

297

(9)

8.4.1 Total Absorption of Light by Metallic Gratings

298

(7)

8.4.2 Gratings Supporting Several Orders

305

(1)

8.5 Resonance Anomalies in Dielectric Overcoated Metallic Grating

306

(4)

8.6 Resonance Anomalies in Corrugated Dielectric Waveguides

310

(1)

8.7 Multilayered Dielectric Gratings

310

(7)

References

317

(2)

Additional Reading

319

(4)

Chapter 9: Waveguide, Fiber, and Acousto-Optic Gratings

323

(44)

9.1 Introduction

323

(2)

9.2 Mode Coupling by Gratings

325

(9)

9.2.1 Couple-Mode Approach

326

(2)

9.2.2 Types of Mode Coupling

328

(3)

9.2.3 Contra-Directional Coupling

331

(3)

9.3 Distributed Planar Waveguide Grating Laser Mirrors

334

(2)

9.4 Wavelength Demultiplexing in Planar Waveguides

336

(4)

9.5 Input/Output Waveguide Grating Couplers

340

(5)

9.6 Photonic Band-Gap in Waveguide Gratings

345

(1)

9.7 Fiber Grating Physics

346

(4)

9.8 Fiber Grating Lasers

350

(1)

9.9 Fiber Grating Filters

351

(4)

9.10 Fiber Grating Sensors

355

(1)

9.11 Mode Conversion by Fiber Gratings

356

(1)

9.12 Acousto-Optic and Electro-Optic Gratings

356

(4)

References

360

(5)

Additional Reading

365

(2)

Chapter 10: Review of Electromagnetic Theories of Grating Efficiencies

367

(34)

10.1 Introduction

367

(1)

10.2 The Physical Problem

367

(6)

10.3 The Rayleigh Hypothesis

373

(2)

10.4 Scalar Theory

375

(1)

10.5 Classical Differential Method

376

(3)

10.6 Modal Methods

379

(2)

10.6.1 The Method of Moharam and Gaylord

379

(1)

10.6.2 The Classical Modal Method

380

(1)

10.7 The Integral Method

381

(2)

10.8 The Finite-Element Method

383

(1)

10.9 The Method of Fictitious Sources

384

(3)

10.10 The Method of Coordinate Transformation

387

(1)

10.11 Theory of Waveguide Gratings

388

(3)

10.12 Conclusions

391

(3)

References

394

(1)

Additional Reading

395

(6)

Reviews on Theoretical Methods

395

(1)

General Theoretical Problems

396

(1)

Differential Methods

396

(1)

Modal Methods

396

(1)

Conformal Mapping Methods

397

(1)

Transformation of Coordinate System

397

(1)

Integral Methods

397

(1)

Fictitious Sources Methods

398

(1)

Rayleigh Methods

399

(1)

Yasuura Method

399

(1)

Approximate Methods

399

(2)

Chapter 11: Testing of Gratings

401

(36)

11.1 Introduction

401

(1)

11.2 Spectral Purity

402

(11)

11.2.1 Effects of Grating Deficiencies on Spectral Purity

402

(4)

11.2.2 Non-Periodic Groove Position Errors

406

(4)

Random Errors

406

(1)

Satellites

407

(2)

Roughness Induced Scattering

409

(1)

Effect of Variations in Groove Depth

409

(1)

11.2.3 The Measurement of Grating Stray Light

410

(3)

11.2.4 Locating Stray Light Sources on a Grating Surface

413

(1)

11.3 The Measurement of Efficiency

413

(10)

11.3.1 Efficiency Measurement Systems--Plane Gratings

414

(3)

11.3.2 Efficiency Measurement Systems--Concave Gratings

417

(1)

11.3.3 Efficiency Measurement Systems--Echelle Gratings

418

(2)

11.3.4 Checking Blaze Specifications

420

(3)

11.4 The Measurement of Resolution

423

(9)

11.4.1 Testing with the Mercury Spectrum

425

(1)

11.4.2 The Foucault Knife Edge Test

426

(2)

11.4.3 Resolution Testing by Wavefront Interferometry

428

(4)

11.5 Testing of Concave Interference Gratings

432

(2)

11.5.1 Measurement of Imaging Properties

432

(2)

11.6 Role of Replication

434

(1)

11.7 Cosmetics

434

(1)

References

434

(1)

Additional Reading

435

(2)

Chapter 12: Instrumental Systems

437

(44)

12.1 Introduction

437

(2)

12.2 Terminology

439

(1)

12.3 Classification of Instruments

439

(2)

12.4 How to Choose a Design

441

(2)

12.5 Plane Grating Mounts

443

(10)

12.5.1 The Czerny - Turner Mount

445

(4)

12.5.2 The Ebert - Fastie Mount

449

(2)

12.5.3 The Monk - Gillison Mount

451

(1)

12.5.4 Grating Drives

452

(1)

12.6 Concave Grating Mounts

453

(11)

12.6.1 The Rowland Mounting

455

(1)

12.6.2 The Abney Mount

455

(1)

12.6.3 The Paschen - Runge Mount

456

(1)

12.6.4 The Eagle Mount

457

(1)

12.6.5 The Wadsworth Mount

458

(3)

12.6.6 The Seya - Namioka Mount

461

(1)

12.6.7 Flat Field Concave Grating Spectrographs

462

(1)

12.6.8 Grazing Incidence Mounts

463

(1)

12.7 Tandem Monochromators

464

(2)

12.8 Imaging Spectrometers

466

(2)

12.9 Multiplexing Spectrographs

468

(3)

12.10 The Role of Fiber Optics in Spectrographs

471

(1)

12.11 Laser Tuning

472

(3)

12.12 On Absolute Groove Spacing

475

(1)

12.13 Multiple Entrance Apertures

476

(1)

References

476

(4)

Additional Reading

480

(1)

Chapter 13: Grating Damage and Control

481

(14)

13.1 Introduction

481

(1)

13.2 Reflection Gratings

482

(8)

13.2.1 The Fingerprint Problem

482

(1)

13.2.2 Vacuum System Residues

483

(1)

13.2.3 Laser Beam Damage - CW

484

(1)

13.2.4 Laser Damage with Pulsed Lasers

485

(2)

13.2.5 Dielectric Reflection Gratings

487

(2)

13.2.6 Synchrotron Grating Applications

489

(1)

13.3 Transmission Gratings

490

(1)

13.3.1 Photoresist Gratings

490

(1)

13.3.2 Monolithic Dielectric Gratings

491

(1)

13.4 Overcoatings

491

(1)

References

492

(1)

Additional Reading

493

(2)

Chapter 14: Mechanical Ruling of Gratings

495

(36)

14.1 Introduction

495

(1)

14.2 History

496

(4)

14.3 Generating Grooves

500

(7)

14.3.1 Metallic Ruling Coatings

505

(1)

14.3.2 Master Blanks for Gratings Ruling

506

(1)

14.4 Accuracy Requirements

507

(3)

14.4.1 Constancy of Spacing

507

(2)

14.4.2 Groove Straightness

509

(1)

14.4.3 Random Spacing Errors

509

(1)

14.4.4 Periodic Errors

509

(1)

14.5 Ruling Engine Design Concepts

510

(18)

14.5.1 The Mechanical Motions

510

(3)

14.5.2 Grating Carriage Drives

513

(1)

14.5.3 Concepts for Error Reduction

514

(1)

14.5.4 Interferometer Feedback Control

515

(3)

Optical Systems

516

(2)

14.5.5 Examples of Ruling Engines

518

(9)

The Michelson Engine

518

(3)

The B - Engine

521

(4)

The Bartlett - Wildy Engine

525

(1)

The Hitachi Ruling Engine

525

(2)

14.5.6 Environmental Factors

527

(1)

Temperature Control

527

(1)

Vibration Isolation

528

(1)

References

528

(2)

Additional Reading

530

(1)

Chapter 15: Holographic Gratings Recording

531

(24)

15.1 Introduction

531

(3)

15.2 Photoresist Layer and Groove Formation

534

(4)

15.3 Two-Beam Symmetrical Recording

538

(4)

15.4 Blazing of Holographic Gratings

542

(10)

15.4.1 Asymmetrical 2-Beam Recording

542

(2)

15.4.2 Fourier Synthesis (Multiple-Beam Recording)

544

(4)

15.4.3 Blazing Through Ion Etching

548

(1)

15.4.4 The Practical Result of Blazing

548

(4)

References

552

(1)

Additional Reading

553

(2)

Chapter 16: Alternative Methods of Gratings Manufacture

555

(22)

16.1 Introduction

555

(1)

16.2 Tools of Alternative Methods for Generating Gratings

556

(1)

16.3 The Problem of Blazing

556

(7)

16.3.1 Blazing With Multiple Mask Lithography

557

(2)

16.3.2 Blazing by Direct Methods

559

(4)

The Use of Charged Beams

559

(3)

The Use of Light Beams

562

(1)

16.4 Pattern-Generating Equipment

563

(3)

16.5 Single Beam Writing with Surface Waves

566

(1)

16.6 Photomask Interference Method

567

(4)

16.7 Single Beam Writing of Fiber Gratings

571

(1)

16.8 Grating Etched Inside Planar Waveguide

572

(1)

16.9 Conclusions

573

(1)

References

573

(1)

Additional Reading

574

(3)

Chapter 17: Replication of Gratings

577

(12)

17.1 Introduction

577

(1)

17.2 The Basic Grating Replication Process

577

(7)

17.2.1 The Substrate

579

(2)

Choice of Materials

579

(1)

Surface Properties

580

(1)

Aspheric Replication

580

(1)

17.2.2 Replication Resins

581

(1)

Thickness of Replica Films

582

(1)

17.2.3 High Temperature Resistance

582

(1)

17.2.4 Environmental Resistance

582

(1)

17.2.5 Transmission Grating Replication

583

(1)

17.2.6 Overcoatings

583

(1)

17.3 Separation of Master and Replica

584

(1)

17.4 Replication Testing

585

(1)

17.5 Multiple Replication

585

(1)

17.6 Alternative Replication Methods

586

(1)

17.6.1 Injection Molding

586

(1)

17.6.2 Embossing

586

(1)

17.6.3 Soft Replication

586

(1)

References

587

(1)

Additional Reading

587

(2)

Index

589

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Diffraction Gratings and Applications

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