Electronic Media Law

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ISBN: 9781412905886 | 1412905885
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 3/10/2005

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Electronic Media Law is written for mass media students, not for future lawyers, so the text is straightforward and explains "legalese." The author covers First Amendment law, political broadcasting rules, broadcast content regulations, FCC rules for station operations, cable regulation, media ownership rules, media liability lawsuits, intrusive newsgathering methods, media restrictions during wartime, libel, privacy, copyright, advertising law, freedom of information, cameras in the court, and privilege.

Preface

xvii

Acknowledgments

xix

The American Legal System

(15)

The American Legal System

(4)

Constitutional Law

(1)

Amending the Constitution

(1)

Statutory Law

(1)

Administrative Law

(1)

Common Law

(1)

Equity Law

(1)

Executive Powers

(1)

The Courts

(8)

Trial Courts and District Courts

(1)

Appeals Courts

(1)

The U.S. Supreme Court

(1)

How a Case Makes Its Way to the Supreme Court

(2)

State Courts

(1)

Criminal and Civil Law

(2)

The Civil Lawsuit Process

(1)

Names and Citations of Cases

(1)

Legal Research Online

(2)

Key Government Web Sites

(1)

Summary

(1)

Understanding the First Amendment

(19)

Roots of American Law

(1)

Sedition in the United States

(3)

The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798

(1)

Sedition Laws Resurface in World War I

(1)

The Clear and Present Danger Test

(1)

States and the First Amendment

(3)

World War II: The Smith Act

(2)

Fighting Words

(2)

Are These Fighting Words?

(2)

Hate Speech

(2)

Cross Burning and Swastikas

(1)

Campus Speech Codes

(1)

Flag Desecration

(1)

Prior Restraint

(3)

Near v. Minnesota

(1)

The Pentagon Papers

(2)

The H-Bomb Case

(1)

Time, Place, and Manner Restrictions

(3)

Criteria for Time, Place, and Manner Restrictions

(1)

Krishnas and a State Fair

(1)

Rock Concerts and Volume

(1)

Summary

(1)

Applying the Principles of Broadcast Regulation

(35)

The Federal Communications Commission

(1)

The Communications Act of 1934

(7)

FCC Commissioners

(1)

Drafting New Regulations

(1)

Important FCC Terminology

(1)

FCC Bureaus

(1)

FCC Licensing

(1)

Broadcast Stations and Minority Employees

(1)

FCC Licenses and Minority Preferences

(1)

TV and Radio License Renewals

(2)

Political Broadcasting Rules

(2)

The ``Equal Time'' or ``Equal Opportunity'' Rule

(1)

Section 315 Analyzed

(9)

``Equal Time'' Really Means ``Equal Opportunities''

(1)

Deadlines

(1)

Legally Qualified Candidates

(1)

Ads Without a Candidate's Voice or Picture

(1)

Other ``Uses''

(1)

Celebrity Candidates

(2)

Section 315 and Primaries

(1)

No Censorship of Political Ads

(2)

Lowest Unit Rate

(2)

Section 315 and News Exemptions

(4)

Debates and the Aspen Rule

(3)

Section 315 and Talk Shows

(1)

Sponsorship Identification

(1)

BCRA (FECA)

(4)

Federal Candidate Ads and BCRA

(2)

BCRA and Lowest Unit Rate

(1)

Third-Party Restrictions Under BCRA

(2)

Political File

(1)

Section 315 Violations

(1)

Section 315 and Ballot Issues

(1)

Section 315 and Newspapers

(1)

Reasonable Access: Section 312(a)(7)

(3)

Important Rules Regarding Reasonable Access

(1)

Political Editorial and Personal Attack Rules

(1)

Personal Attack and Political Editorial Rules Thrown Out

(1)

Fairness Doctrine

(2)

Summary

(1)

Cable and Satellite Regulation

(31)

Early Cable Regulation

(2)

Leapfrogging

(1)

The FCC Is Allowed to Regulate Cable

(1)

Cable and ``Public Interest''

(4)

The 1972 Cable Television Report and Order

(1)

Antisiphoning Rule Struck Down

(1)

The Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984 (The 1984 Cable Act)

(1)

Franchises

(1)

Access Channel Rules

(4)

PEG Channels No Longer Mandatory

(2)

The KKK and Public Access

(1)

Mandatory Leased Access

(1)

Privacy

(1)

Cable TV and Copyright Law

(2)

Compulsory Licensing

(1)

``Must-Carry'' Rules

(1)

The Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992

(4)

``Must-Carry'' and ``May-Carry''

(2)

Rate Regulations . . . for a Time

(1)

Rate Rollbacks

(1)

Proportional Rates

(1)

Channel Repositioning

(1)

Service Standards

(1)

Syndicated Exclusivity (``Syndex'')

(1)

Syndex Reborn

(1)

Network Nonduplication Rules

(1)

Cable Descramblers

(1)

Public Inspection Files

(1)

Cable System Fines

(1)

Satellite Radio and TV

(5)

Satellite Radio

(1)

Satellite Radio Regulations

(1)

Satellite TV

(1)

Satellite TV Regulations

(2)

High Definition Television (HDTV)

(3)

A Brief History

(1)

2009 Target Date

(1)

Missed Deadlines

(1)

Manufacturer Deadlines

(2)

Overall, a Slow Start but Gaining Momentum

(1)

Digital Radio

(3)

Developing a DAB Standard (IBOC)

(1)

Digital Radio: Advantages for Listeners

(1)

Digital Radio: Advantages for Stations

100

(1)

Summary

101

(1)

Media Ownership Rules

101

(23)

History of Broadcast Ownership Rules

102

(3)

1940: The Duopoly Rule

102

(1)

1943: The Supreme Court Limits Broadcast Network Powers

102

(2)

Broadcast Station Ownership Limits: 7--7--7, 12--12--12, and Beyond

104

(1)

Cross-Ownership Rules

105

(3)

Independent Voices

106

(1)

TV-Newspaper Cross-Ownership Liberalized

107

(1)

Satellite TV-Cable Cross-Ownership

107

(1)

The Telecommunications Act of 1996

108

(5)

Radio Ownership Limits

108

(4)

Other Major Changes From the Telecomm Act of 1996

112

(1)

TV Duopoly Rules Updated

113

(1)

The New 2003 TV and Cross-Media Rules

113

(3)

Proposed 45% National TV Ownership Limit

114

(1)

Local TV Multiple Ownership Limits

114

(1)

Cross-Media Limits Rule

115

(1)

Dual Network Ownership Prohibition

116

(1)

Defining Radio Markets

116

(1)

2003 Ownership Changes Harshly Criticized

116

(1)

Court Blocks New Ownership Rules

117

(1)

National Cable Ownership Rules

117

(1)

Antitrust Laws and Media Mergers

118

(1)

Low-Power FM Stations

119

(3)

Opposition to LPFM

121

(1)

Low-Power Television (LPTV)

122

(1)

Local Marketing Agreements (LMA)

122

(1)

Summary

123

(1)

Broadcast Station Regulations

124

(27)

Broadcast Identifications

124

(2)

Station Identification (or Legal Identification)

124

(1)

Content

125

(1)

Important Station Paperwork

126

(1)

Logs

126

(1)

Power Readings

127

(1)

Main Studio Rules

127

(1)

The Emergency Alert System

128

(3)

Basic EAS Rules for Stations

128

(2)

EAS and the ``Amber Alert''

130

(1)

Chief Operators and Logs

131

(1)

Guidelines for Chief Operators

131

(1)

Public Inspection File

132

(2)

The Station Copy of FCC Rules and Regulations

134

(1)

Telephone Rules

134

(1)

The ``Live'' Rule

135

(1)

Live Newscasts and Teasers

136

(1)

Live News Reports

136

(1)

Broadcast Hoaxes

136

(3)

Volcano in Connecticut?

137

(1)

Fake Nuclear Attack

137

(1)

``Confess Your Crime'' Hoax

137

(1)

Dead Radio Host Hoax

138

(1)

FCC Creates Broadcast Hoax Rule

139

(1)

Broadcast Content

139

(4)

News Content

139

(1)

Drug Lyrics

140

(1)

Contests

140

(3)

Payola and Plugola

143

(2)

Payola

143

(1)

Plugola

143

(2)

Other Legal Issues

145

(2)

Sponsor Identification

145

(1)

Subliminal Advertising

145

(1)

Soliciting Funds

146

(1)

Unattended or Automated Radio Stations

146

(1)

Telephone Access

146

(1)

Non-FCC Legal Issues

147

(3)

Radio Traffic Jam

147

(1)

Radio Traffic Jam II

147

(1)

It Pays to Read

148

(1)

Prank Phone Call to the White House

148

(1)

Animal Cruelty Case

148

(1)

Wedding Announcement Prank

148

(1)

``Worthless Money'' Prank

149

(1)

Honk If You Want a Lawsuit

149

(1)

Radio ``Terrorist''

149

(1)

Summary

150

(1)

Libel

151

(23)

Libel and Slander

151

(1)

Six Elements of Libel

151

(1)

Direct and Indirect Libel

151

(1)

Media Defenses Against Libel

152

(1)

Defining Truth

152

(5)

The Actual Malice Standard

156

(1)

Public Figures and Private Citizens

157

(2)

Rosenbloom Rethought

158

(1)

Time v. Firestone

158

(1)

Wolston v. Reader's Digest

158

(1)

The ``Chicken Butt'' Case

159

(1)

Reckless Disregard for the Truth

159

(3)

Attempted Assassinations Lead to a Radio Libel Suit

159

(1)

Deadline Pressure

160

(2)

Defining Privilege

162

(2)

Neutral Reportage

162

(2)

Fair Comment and Criticism

164

(3)

Marxist Professor?

164

(1)

The Wrestling Coach and Alleged Perjury

165

(1)

Radio Call-in Show Leads to Defamation Suit

166

(1)

Veggie Libel

166

(1)

Oprah Winfrey Versus the Beef Industry

167

(1)

Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress

167

(1)

Ugliest Bride

168

(1)

Taking Liberties With Quotations

168

(1)

Libel and Statutes of Limitations

169

(2)

Libel and Jurisdiction

170

(1)

Libel and Large Groups

171

(1)

The Guns of Autumn

171

(1)

Some Good Tips to Keep You Away From Libel Cases

172

(1)

Summary

173

(1)

Privacy

174

(28)

History of Privacy Law

174

(1)

Privacy Law Torts

175

(1)

Four Basic Torts of Privacy Law

176

(1)

Intrusion and the Media

176

(5)

TV Camera on a Sidewalk

177

(1)

Journalists Airing Recorded Phone Conversations

178

(1)

Crime and Disaster Scenes

179

(1)

Jails and Prisons

180

(1)

Public Figures and Privacy Rights

181

(2)

Antipaparazzi Law Passed

182

(1)

Actress Sues Tabloids Over Topless Photos

183

(1)

Sexual Assault Victims

183

(2)

Publishing or Broadcasting Rape Victims' Names

183

(2)

Media Coverage of Rape Trials

185

(1)

Publishing the Names of Juveniles

185

(1)

Disclosure of Embarrassing Private Facts

186

(3)

Video Voyeurism

186

(1)

Accidental Public Exposures

187

(1)

Sex Change Revealed

188

(1)

Newspaper ``Outing''

188

(1)

False Light

189

(4)

Pictures and False Light

189

(1)

News Reporter Embellishes a Story

190

(1)

TV News Video and Herpes

191

(1)

TV News Video and Drugs

191

(1)

Man Harassed After Radio Station Airs His Phone Number

192

(1)

An Expensive Lesson From a ``Sexy Teacher''

192

(1)

Misappropriation

193

(7)

Baseball Cards and Baseball Players

194

(1)

Misappropriation and the News Media

194

(1)

Endorsement Claims

195

(1)

Striking a ``Careful Balance''

196

(1)

A Right of Publicity Test

197

(1)

Misappropriate of an Identifying Characteristic

198

(1)

Celebrity Sound-Alikes

199

(1)

General Tips About Privacy

200

(1)

Danger Areas

200

(1)

Safe Areas

201

(1)

Summary

201

(1)

Intrusive Newsgathering Methods: Hidden Cameras, Media Ride-Alongs, Ambush Interviews

202

(17)

Mixed Rulings on Hidden Cameras and Microphones

202

(9)

``Crackdown on Quackery''

202

(1)

Privacy, Car Accidents, and Ambulances

203

(2)

Some Workplaces Are ``Private''

205

(4)

Is the Outside of Your Home Private?

209

(1)

Summary on Hidden Cameras and Microphones

210

(1)

Media Ride-Alongs

211

(5)

Media Ride-Alongs With Paramedics

211

(1)

Courts Limit Media Ride-Alongs With Police

212

(4)

Ambushing

216

(2)

The Le Mistral Case

217

(1)

Inside Edition Gets Too Close

217

(1)

Summary

218

(1)

Media Liability Lawsuits

219

(16)

Common Criteria in Copycat Cases

220

(2)

America's First Media Copycat Claim?

221

(1)

Radio Station ``Mad Scramble''

221

(1)

Stimulus Versus Encouragement

222

(5)

The Mickey Mouse Club Case---``One Out of 16 Million''

223

(1)

``We Warned You....''

224

(1)

``TV Intoxication''

225

(1)

Advertisements and ``Foreseeable Harm''

226

(1)

Tabloid Talk Shows

227

(1)

TV Talk Show Topic Leads to Murder

227

(1)

MTV Pushes the Envelope

228

(1)

Jackass

228

(1)

Movies

229

(2)

Natural Born Killers

229

(1)

Paducah School Shooting Lawsuit

230

(1)

Music and Suicide

231

(2)

``Suicide Solution''

231

(1)

``The Music Made Me `Do It'''

232

(1)

The Internet

233

(1)

Antiabortion Web Site

233

(1)

Summary

234

(1)

Obscenity

235

(20)

Obscenity Laws: A Brief History

236

(5)

``What Is Only Fit for Children....''

237

(1)

The Roth Test

237

(2)

Is It Legal to Own Obscene Material?

239

(1)

Transporting Obscene Material

240

(1)

Congress Calls for Study on Pornography

240

(1)

The Landmark Miller Decision

241

(2)

The Miller Test

241

(1)

Local Standards, Not National

242

(1)

Time, Place, and Manner Restrictions and Pornography

243

(2)

Zoning Ordinances

243

(2)

Obscenity and Disclaimers

245

(1)

The Meese Commission

245

(1)

Children and Obscenity

246

(1)

Protecting Children From Accessing Pornography

246

(1)

Child Pornography

247

(3)

1977 Protection of Children Against Exploitation Act

248

(1)

1996 Child Pornography Prevention Act (CPPA)

249

(1)

Obscenity and Popular Music

250

(2)

The Internet: A New Battleground in Obscenity Law

252

(1)

Summary

253

(2)

Indecency and Violence

255

(33)

A History of Broadcast Indecency Regulation

255

(11)

``Topless Radio''

256

(1)

FCC v. Pacifica

257

(1)

The Safe Harbor: 10:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.

258

(1)

Shock Radio

259

(1)

The Rules Start to Change

259

(1)

A Smaller Harbor?

260

(1)

Howard Stern Strikes Again---and the FCC Strikes Back

260

(1)

2001: The FCC Issues New Guidelines on Indecency Regulation

261

(2)

Eminem and ``The [Edited] Real Slim Shady''

263

(1)

A Song Denouncing ``Indecent'' Hip-Hop Lyrics Is Called Indecent

263

(1)

2003: Public Outrage Builds Over Indecent Broadcasts---and FCC Rulings

264

(2)

New Crackdown on Indecency

266

(4)

The 2004 Super Bowl ``Wardrobe Malfunction''

266

(2)

Bono Ruling Overturned

268

(1)

Congress Reacts With Tough New Fines

268

(1)

Fining Individuals?

268

(1)

Another Record Indecency Fine

269

(1)

Indecency and Other Electronic Media

270

(2)

Cable TV

270

(1)

Renewed Efforts to Regulate Indecency on Cable

271

(1)

Cable Access Channels

272

(2)

Leased Access Channel ``Lists''

273

(1)

Indecency Regulations on ``Pay-per-View''

273

(1)

Indecent Phone Services

274

(1)

Congress Tries to Ban ``Dial-a-Porn'' and Fails

274

(1)

Congress Passes Another ``Dial-a-Porn'' Law

274

(1)

Indecency and the Internet

275

(5)

Communications Decency Act

275

(2)

Child Online Protection Act (CDA Part II?)

277

(1)

Children's Internet Protection Act

278

(2)

Violence

280

(4)

Violent Music Lyrics Spark Controversy

280

(1)

The V-Chip and the TV Rating System

281

(3)

Broadcast TV and Children's Programming Rules

284

(1)

Children's TV in the 1980s

284

(1)

The Children's Television Act of 1990

284

(1)

Music Warning Labels

285

(2)

1984: The Music Industry Takes Some Heat

285

(2)

Summary

287

(1)

288

(19)

The Six Basic Rights of Copyright Holders

289

(1)

First Sale Doctrine

290

(1)

Works for Hire

290

(1)

Obtaining a Copyright

291

(1)

Duration of Copyright

292

(1)

Public Domain

292

(1)

Confusion About Public Domain

293

(1)

Music Licensing

293

(2)

The Three Basic Rights

295

(7)

Public Performance

295

(2)

Mechanical Rights

297

(2)

Synchronization Rights

299

(3)

Fairness in Music Licensing Act

302

(2)

Special Exemption for Music Stores

303

(1)

Live Bands and Jukeboxes in Businesses

304

(1)

Compulsory Licensing

304

(1)

Music Plagiarism

304

(2)

Subconscious Copyright Violation

304

(2)

Summary

306

(1)

307

(25)

Fair Use and the VCR

308

(1)

Fair Use and Sampling

309

(1)

Fair Use and Broadcast News

310

(5)

Using Movie Clips in Broadcast News Stories

310

(1)

Movie Sound Clips in Radio

311

(1)

Using ``Newsworthy'' Video in a TV New Story

312

(2)

Writing Broadcast News Stories From Newspaper Articles

314

(1)

315

(1)

Parodies

316

(3)

Saturday Night Live Parody

317

(1)

The Rap on ``(Oh) Pretty Woman''

318

(1)

Satire

319

(1)

Movie Poster Cases

319

(1)

320

(4)

Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)

320

(1)

MP3s

321

(1)

Napster

322

(1)

The Recording Industry Strikes Back

323

(1)

Radio Station Webcasting

324

(1)

Movie Bootlegs, the Internet, and CSS

325

(2)

File-Sharing Software Ruled Legal

326

(1)

DVD-Copying Software Faces Legal Challenges

326

(1)

BBS Sites

327

(1)

Trademarks

328

(3)

Trademarks in News Stories

328

(1)

Abandoned Trademarks

329

(1)

Radio Station Trademarks

329

(1)

TV Show Trademarks

330

(1)

The Federal Trademark Dilution Act of 1995

330

(1)

Summary

331

(1)

Advertising Law

332

(27)

Early Advertising Law

332

(3)

No First Amendment Protection for Advertising?

332

(1)

Other Early Advertising Cases

333

(1)

The Courts Give Commercial Speech More Protection

334

(1)

The Landmark Central Hudson Case

335

(1)

False Advertising

336

(10)

Federal Agencies Overseeing Advertising

336

(1)

Important Terms

337

(1)

Some Famous False Advertising Cases

338

(4)

Puffery

342

(2)

Testimonial

344

(1)

Mock-Ups

345

(1)

Regulating Ads for Harmful Products

346

(9)

Gambling

346

(3)

Cigarettes

349

(4)

Alcohol

353

(2)

Underwriting Rules

355

(2)

What to Avoid

355

(1)

Examples of Unacceptable Underwriting

356

(1)

Promoting Nonprofit Events

357

(1)

Regulating Telemarketing

357

(1)

Regulating ``Spam'' E-Mail

357

(1)

Summary

358

(1)

Media and the Courts

359

(19)

Cameras in the Courtroom

359

(1)

Cameras No Longer ``Intrusive''

360

(1)

Canon 3A (7) Challenged

360

(1)

TV News and Videotaped Confessions

360

(1)

The Famous Sam Sheppard Murder Trial

361

(2)

Problems With the Sheppard Guidelines

362

(1)

Right of Access to Trials

363

(4)

Trials Should Be Open to the Public

364

(1)

Closing Trials Involving Young Sex Victims

364

(1)

Federal Courts and Cameras

365

(1)

States and Cameras in Court

366

(1)

Gag Orders

367

(5)

Media Gag Orders Struck Down

370

(2)

Media Gag Orders Upheld

372

(1)

Opening Pretrial Proceedings

372

(2)

Jury Selection Process

373

(1)

Press-Enterprise Test for Closing Pretrial Proceedings

373

(1)

Pretrial Hearings

373

(1)

Civil Trials and Cameras

374

(3)

Court Documents

374

(1)

Access to Audio and Video Evidence

375

(1)

When Broadcast Would Damage Fair Trial

376

(1)

Summary

377

(1)

News Sources

378

(17)

Confidential Sources

378

(3)

The Landmark Branzburg v. Hayes Case

378

(3)

State Shield Laws

381

(1)

Civil Contempt

381

(1)

Important Post-Branzburg Cases

382

(7)

Reporters' Sources Protected

382

(4)

Reporters' Sources Not Protected

386

(1)

Nonconfidential Materials

386

(3)

The Leggett Shield Law Case

389

(1)

Defining Journalist

389

(1)

Journalists as Eyewitnesses to Crime

390

(1)

Newsroom Searches

391

(1)

Promises of Confidentiality---Keep Your Promises!

392

(1)

Indirect Contempt

393

(1)

Summary

394

(1)

Media Access to Government Sources

395

(28)

Access to Government Records and Documents

395

(5)

The Freedom of Information Act

395

(4)

The Vaughn Index

399

(1)

The Electronic Freedom of Information Act of 1996

400

(5)

Exemptions

400

(4)

FOIA and September 11 Detainees

404

(1)

Access to Government Meetings

405

(1)

The Sunshine Act

405

(1)

Media Credentials

406

(1)

State FOI Laws and Sunshine Laws

407

(1)

State Sunshine Laws: Some Common Principles

407

(1)

State FOI Laws: Some Common Principles

407

(1)

Sunshine Laws and Sensitive Information

408

(2)

Prisons

410

(1)

The News Media and Access to Prisons

410

(1)

Court Reaffirms Prison Restrictions for the Media

410

(1)

Access to Rap Sheets

411

(1)

Important Federal Privacy Statutes

412

(3)

Privacy Act of 1974

412

(1)

Access to School and University Records

412

(2)

Access to Driving Records

414

(1)

Access to Government or Public Property

415

(1)

Traditional Public Forums

415

(1)

Limited Public Forums

415

(1)

Nonpublic Forums

416

(1)

Public Access to Executions

416

(1)

Access to Military Information

417

(5)

World War I

417

(1)

World War II

417

(1)

The Vietnam War

417

(1)

Grenada and Press Pools

418

(1)

The 1991 Persian Gulf War

418

(2)

The War in Afghanistan

420

(1)

The War in Iraq: Historic Media Access

420

(1)

The Media and Military Bases

421

(1)

Summary

422

(1)

Table of Cases and FCC Rulings

423

(10)

Appendix: The FCC Inspection

433

(6)

Index

439

(8)

About the Author

447

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Electronic Media Law

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials