Encyclopedia of the Elements Technical Data - History - Processing - Applications

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ISBN: 9783527306664 | 3527306668
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 9/3/2004

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Famous for its history of numerous element discoverers, Sweden is the origin of this comprehensive encylopedia of the elements. It provides both an important database for professionals as well as detailed reading ranging from historical facts, discoverers' portraits, colour plates of mineral types, natural occurrences, and industrial figures to winning and refining processes, biological roles and applications in modern chemistry, engineering and industry. Elemental data is presented in fact tables which include numerous physical and thermodynamic properties, isotope lists, radiation absorption characteristics, NMR parameters, and others. Further pertinent data is supplied in additional tables throughout the text. Published in Swedish in three volumes from 1998 to 2000, the contents have been revised and expanded by the author for this English edition.

Foreword

Preface

xxxvii

Color Plates

xxxix

1 Introduction

(22)

1.1 What is an Element?

(1)

1.2 Elements known from Time Immemorial

(1)

1.3 Searching, Finding and Using

(1)

1.4 Systematic Searches

(1)

1.5 About this Book

(2)

1.5.1 A Bridge between Science/Technology and Culture/History

(1)

1.5.2 The Motive for a new Book

(1)

1.5.3 The Book's Layout

(1)

1.6 Useful Definitions and Facts

(2)

1.6.1 Some Geological Terms

(2)

1.6.2 Resources and Reserves

(1)

1.7 General Literature Sources

(1)

1.7.1 The History behind the Discoveries of Elements

(1)

1.7.2 Raw Materials and Production

(1)

1.8 Quantitative Element Descriptions

(14)

1.8.1 Units, Conversion Factors and Fundamental Constants in the SI System

(1)

1.8.2 Fact Tables

(14)

2 About Matter

(32)

2.1 Knowledge started in Handicraft

(1)

2.2 Early thinking about Materials

(2)

2.2.1 Four basic Stuffs

(1)

2.2.2 The Atomism or corpuscular Philosophy

(1)

2.2.3 An early Choice

(1)

2.3 Alchemy - Good and Bad

(2)

2.3.1 Not only Gold-making

(1)

2.3.2 Two Papyri - One Message from Ancient Alchemy

(1)

2.3.3 Alchemy comes to Europe

(1)

2.3.4 The bad and good Reputation of Alchemy

(1)

2.4 Paracelsus - A Phenomenon in Alchemy and Medical Chemistry

(2)

2.5 Two pragmatic Pioneers in the 16th Century

(4)

2.5.1 Vannoccio Biringuccio - Observer - Experimentalist - Writer

(3)

2.5.2 Georgius Agricola - A Renewer Of Mining And Metallurgical Technique

(1)

2.6 New Winds in the 17th Century

(2)

2.7 Phlogiston

(1)

2.8 Still in the 18th Century - the Chemical Revolution

(1)

2.8.1 Discoveries of new Elements

(1)

2.8.2 Lavoisier and the Chemical Revolution

(1)

2.9 A Breakthrough for Atomism

(2)

2.10 Accelerating Knowledge of the Atom

(1)

2.10.1 Atomic Weights

(1)

2.10.2 The Structure of the Atom

(1)

2.10.3 The Element is not Elementary

(1)

2.11 The Solid State

(2)

2.12 To Look into Matter

(4)

2.12.1 Electron Microscopy - a Review

(1)

2.12.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) in Practice

(1)

2.12.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) in Practice

(1)

2.12.4 A new Look at the Atomic World with Tunneling Microscope and Atomic Probe

(1)

2.13 Alchemy for a new Millennium - Nanotechnology

(1)

2.14 The Inorganic Chemistry of Life

(7)

2.14.1 Common Elements - Essential And Toxic

(1)

2.14.2 The Eleven Dominants - Bulk Biological Elements

(1)

2.14.3 Essential Trace Elements

(1)

2.14.4 Heavy Metals good for Life!

(1)

2.14.5 The Risk of Deviating from Just Right

(3)

2.14.6 A dynamic Earth

(2)

3 The Elements - Origin, Occurrence, Discovery And Names

(24)

3.1 The Synthesis Of Elements In Stars And In Supernova Explosions

(2)

3.2 The Earth

(5)

3.2.1 Building Up

(1)

3.2.2 The Earth's Crust

(2)

3.2.3 The Oceans - The Hydrosphere

(1)

3.2.4 The Atmosphere

(1)

3.3 The Periodic Table of the Elements

(5)

3.3.1 A Pattern for the Elements

(2)

3.3.2 The Modern Periodic Table

(3)

3.4 Element Discoveries

(4)

3.4.1 Stable and Unstable Elements

(1)

3.4.2 Who Made the Discovery?

(3)

3.5 Element Names

(5)

3.5.1 Elements Known in Antiquity

(1)

3.5.2 Elements from the Time of the Alchemistis

(1)

3.5.3 Element Names from Celestial Bodies

(1)

3.5.4 Element Names from Mythology

(1)

3.5.5 Elements With Color Names

(1)

3.5.6 Names from Countries and Places as Element Names

(1)

3.5.7 The Family of Noble Gases

(1)

3.5.8 Personal Names as Element Names

(1)

3.6 Symbols for the Elements

(3)

4 Geochemistry

(20)

4.1 Common and Rare in the Earth's Crust

(1)

4.2 Analysis of the Earth's Crust - a Geochemical Task

(3)

4.2.1 Early Results from the US Geological Survey

(1)

4.2.2 Findings at the Vernadsky Institute in Moscow

(1)

4.2.3 A Small Number of Samples but Important Results

(1)

4.2.4 Odd and Even Elements. Harkin's Rule

(1)

4.3 The Development of Geochemistry

(4)

4.3.1 Rare Elements in the Earth's Crust - Compounds and Contents

(1)

4.3.2 Goldschmidt and the Modernizing of Geochemistry

(3)

4.3.3 The Russian Geochemical School

(1)

4.4 Some Geochemical Principles and Results

(6)

4.4.1 The Geochemical Classification of Elements

(2)

4.4.2 ...if the Atomic Sizes are Suitable

(2)

4.4.3 Charge Intensity - Ion Potential in Water Solutions

(1)

4.4.4 Not Only Ionic Radius and Charge

(1)

4.5 Isotopes and Geochemistry

(3)

4.5.1 Isotopic Variations

(1)

4.5.2 Hydrogen isotope variations

(1)

4.5.3 Oxygen Isotope Variations and Temperature Variations 400 000 Years Ago

(1)

4.5.4 Carbon Isotope Variations and a Bold Hypothesis for Life

(1)

4.6 Radioactive Methods for Age Determination

(3)

5 Gold

(24)

5.1 Au Facts about Gold

(4)

5.2 Gold in History

103

(7)

5.2.1 Most Prominent Among Metals

103

(1)

5.2.2 Gold from the Mysterious Country of Ophir and from the Queen of Sheba

104

(1)

5.2.3 Nubia - The Gold Country

105

(1)

5.2.4 The Golden Fleece

105

(1)

5.2.5 Esmeralda - The Gold Country

106

(1)

5.2.6 Gold Coins

107

(1)

5.2.7 Gold and Gold Rushes in the Modern Era

108

(1)

5.2.8 How Much Gold?

109

(1)

5.3 Is it Possible to Find Gold - Today?

110

(1)

5.4 Gold Ores and Gold Reserves

111

(4)

5.4.1 Gold Prospecting

111

(1)

5.4.2 Gold Reserves

111

(4)

5.5 Gold Production in Mines

115

(1)

5.6 Gold Manufacturing by Chemical and Metallurgical Methods

115

(2)

5.6.1 Older Techniques

115

(1)

5.6.2 The Cyanide Method - Environmentally Friendly!

116

(1)

5.6.3 Gold Manufacture from Sulfide Ores

116

(1)

5.6.4 Separation of Gold and Silver

116

(1)

5.7 Properties

117

(2)

5.7.1 A Ductile and Noble Metal

117

(1)

5.7.2 Why is Gold so Noble?

118

(1)

5.8 Uses

119

(2)

5.8.1 Pure Gold and Gold Alloys

119

(1)

5.8.2 Gold Surfaces

120

(1)

5.8.3 The Gold Content of Gold

120

(1)

5.9 The Biological Role of Gold

121

(2)

6 Silver

123

(16)

6.1 Ag Facts about Silver

123

(4)

6.2 Silver in History

127

(6)

6.2.1 Knowledge of Metals Gradually Increased

127

(1)

6.2.2 The Bellows Puff and Blow in the Cupellation Process

128

(1)

6.2.3 Crete and Mycenae

129

(1)

6.2.4 King Croesus Coins Silver and Becomes a Proper Croesus

130

(1)

6.2.5 Athens a Basis for the West - Silver a Basis for Athens

131

(1)

6.2.6 Early Silver Supply in Central and Northern Europe

132

(1)

6.2.7 Silver Regions in South and Central America

133

(1)

6.3 The Geology of Silver

133

(1)

6.3.1 Silver Minerals

133

(1)

6.3.2 Silver Resources and Reserves

134

(1)

6.4 Mine Production of Silver

134

(1)

6.5 Silver Manufacture - Metallurgical and Chemical

135

(1)

6.5.1 Extraction from Lead Ores

135

(1)

6.5.2 Silver from Copper Ores

136

(1)

6.6 Properties and Uses

136

(2)

6.6.1 Alloys for Different Purposes

137

(1)

6.6.2 Oxides for Batteries and Bromides for Photography

137

(1)

6.6.3 Silver Plating

137

(1)

6.7 The Biological Role of Silver

138

(1)

7 Copper

139

(28)

7.1 Cu Facts about Copper

139

(4)

7.2 Copper in History

143

(8)

7.2.1 A Copper Age between the Stone and Bronze Ages?

143

(1)

7.2.2 A Clear Greeting From the Copper Age

144

(1)

7.2.3 Copper in Many Regions

144

(1)

7.2.4 A Model for the Development of Mining and Metallurgy

145

(1)

7.2.5 Copper in the Roman Empire

145

(1)

7.2.6 Bronze - A Leap in Technology

146

(1)

7.2.7 Brass - Copper and Zinc

147

(1)

7.2.8 The Copper Mine in Falun

148

(3)

7.3 Copper Ores

151

(6)

7.3.1 Copper Minerals

151

(1)

7.3.2 Experimental Geology Discovers How Ores Were Formed

152

(2)

7.3.3 Types of Copper Deposits

154

(1)

7.3.4 Copper Reserves

154

(1)

7.3.5 Copper Production in Mines

155

(2)

7.4 The Manufacture of Copper Metal

157

(4)

7.4.1 Primary Production from Oxide Ores

157

(1)

7.4.2 Primary Production from Sulfide Ores

157

(3)

7.4.3 Electrolytic Refining of Copper

160

(1)

7.4.4 Bacterial Leaching

160

(1)

7.4.5 Secondary Production - Recycling of Copper

160

(1)

7.5 Copper Production

161

(1)

7.6 Uses of Copper

162

(3)

7.6.1 Copper Metal

162

(1)

7.6.2 Brass

163

(1)

7.6.3 Bronze

164

(1)

7.7 Copper and the Environment

165

(2)

8 Iron

167

(48)

8.1 Fe Facts about Iron

167

(4)

8.2 Iron and Steel - Some Definitions

171

(1)

8.3 Metallurgy - Chemistry at High Temperatures

172

(2)

8.4 Ancient History - A Global Outline

174

(1)

8.4.1 Early Incidence of Iron

174

(1)

8.4.2 A Heavenly Metal

174

(1)

8.4.3 The Ores of Early Iron Manufacture

176

(1)

8.4.4 Not Cast but Forged - While the Iron is Hot

176

(1)

8.4.5 Steel - At Least on the Component Surface

178

(1)

8.4.6 No Blacksmith in All Israel

182

(1)

8.4.7 China - Persia - India

182

(1)

8.4.8 Nineveh Tests the Forgeability

184

(1)

8.4.9 Africa

184

(1)

8.4.10 Iron in Old Europe

185

(2)

8.5 Pig Iron - Impossible to Forge - But Forged to Bar Iron

187

(4)

8.5.1 More Iron!

187

(1)

8.5.2 The Blast Furnace

187

(2)

8.5.3 To Make Pig Iron Forgeable

189

(1)

8.5.4 Steel Manufacture from Wrought Iron

190

(1)

8.6 Sweden and England - Cooperation and Competition

191

(4)

8.6.1 Iron Ores With and Without Phosphorus

191

(1)

8.6.2 England-Sweden in Cooperation

192

(1)

8.6.3 The Puddling Process - An English Threat to Swedish Hegemony

193

(2)

8.7 Metallurgy Becomes a Science

195

(7)

8.7.1 Early Opinions and Methods

195

(1)

8.7.2 Carbon an Alloying Element?

196

(1)

8.7.3 Swedish 18th-Century Chemistry - Again

197

(1)

8.7.4 A Modern Version of Damascus Steel

198

(1)

8.7.5 Two Revolutions Take Over

199

(1)

8.7.6 Modern Metallurgy - A Diversified Science

200

(2)

8.8 Iron Ores

202

(3)

8.8.1 Minerals

203

(1)

8.8.2 Iron Ore Resources and Production

204

(1)

8.9 Modern Manufacture of Steel

205

(52)

8.9.1 Two Production Methods - From Iron Ore and Iron Scrap

205

(1)

8.9.2 Ore-Based Steel Production

206

(1)

8.9.3 Raw Steel from Scrap

206

(1)

8.9.4 Refining of Steel

207

(2)

8.9.5 Production of Stainless Steel

209

(1)

8.9.6 Techniques in Modern Steel Manufacture - A Summary

209

(1)

8.10 Steel for Many Purposes

210

(1)

8.11 Large Volumes of Steel in a Modern Society

211

(1)

8.12 Iron at the Center of Life - A Positive Biological Role for a Heavy Metal

212

(3)

9 Hydrogen

215

(20)

9.1 H Facts about Hydrogen

215

(4)

9.2 Discovery

219

(6)

9.2.1 The Combustible Gas in Mars!

219

(1)

9.2.2 Lomonosov - The Founder of Russian Science

219

(1)

9.2.3 Henry Cavendish

220

(5)

9.3 The Occurrence of Hydrogen

225

(1)

9.3.1 A Universe of Hydrogen and Helium

225

(1)

9.3.2 Hydrogen on Earth

226

(1)

9.4 Manufacture

226

(1)

9.5 Uses

227

(3)

9.5.1 Chemical and Metallurgical Industry

227

(1)

9.5.2 Hydrogen - The Energy Carrier of the Future

228

(1)

9.5.3 Rocket Fuel

228

(1)

9.5.4 Fuel Cells

229

(1)

9.5.5 Lifting Gas for Balloons and Airships

230

(1)

9.6 Hydrogen Isotopes - Deuterium and Tritium

230

(2)

9.6.1 The Three Isotopes of Hydrogen

230

(1)

9.6.2 Deuterium

231

(1)

9.6.3 Tritium

232

(1)

9.7 Fusion Energy - "Energy From Water"

232

(1)

9.8 The Biological Role of Hydrogen

233

(2)

10 Blowpipe and Spectroscope - Important Tools for Discovering Elements

235

(24)

10.1 Analysis With the Blowpipe

235

(1)

10.1.1 Introduction

235

(1)

10.1.2 Mineral Analysis With a Blowpipe

236

(2)

10.2 The Fundamentals of Spectral Analysis

238

(3)

10.3 The Color of the Flame Gives Information on the Composition

241

(1)

10.4 The Spectrum - Visible and Invisible

241

(1)

10.4.1 A Prism Splits a Beam of Light According to the Wavelength

241

(1)

10.4.2 Infrared (IR) and Ultraviolet (UV)

242

(1)

10.4.3 Fraunhofer's Lines and Gratings

242

(1)

10.5 The Development of Spectroscopy Continues

243

(1)

10.5.1 Separates Red From Red

243

(1)

10.5.2 Use of Electricity for Spectral Analysis

244

(1)

10.5.3 A Finding in a Fire-ravaged Glass Factory

244

(1)

10.5.4 Anders Angstrom in Uppsala Makes Spectroscopy Quantitative

245

(1)

10.5.5 The Angstrom Laboratory

246

(1)

10.5.6 A Research Milieu in Heidelberg

247

(3)

10.6 What Happens in the Atom During Spectral Analysis?

250

(1)

10.7 Atomic Numbers and X-ray Spectra

250

(1)

10.8 Modern Spectral and X-ray Analysis

251

(1)

10.8.1 Emission Spectral Analysis

251

(2)

10.8.2 Infrared Spectroscopy

253

(1)

10.8.3 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

253

(1)

10.8.4 X-ray Fluorescence Analysis

254

(1)

10.8.5 EDS and WDS Analysis

254

(1)

10.8.6 Special Methods for Surface Analysis

255

(1)

10.8.7 Mass Spectrometry

255

(2)

10.8.8 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)

257

(2)

11 Sodium and Potassium

259

(28)

11.1 Na Facts about Sodium

259

(4)

11.1 K Facts about Potassium

263

(4)

11.2 The Alkali Metals - A Brief Outline

267

(1)

11.3 Sodium and Potassium in Chemical History

268

(1)

11.3.1 Alkali and Alkali - Saltpeter and Saltpeter

268

(1)

11.3.2 Potash

270

(1)

11.3.3 Soda

271

(1)

11.3.4 He Fell Into an Ecstasy Over an Element

271

(1)

11.3.5 A French Alternative

272

(1)

11.3.6 Why the Names Sodium and Potassium?

273

(1)

11.4 Chemical Engineering in a Dramatic Era

274

(1)

11.4.1 Alkalis and Salt - Essential Commodities

274

(1)

11.4.2 Gunpowder and Soap in Competition

274

(1)

11.4.3 Leblanc's Soda Process - The Birth of Industrial Chemistry

275

(5)

11.5 Sodium in Our Time

280

(1)

11.5.1 Occurrence

280

(1)

11.6 Manufacture

281

(1)

11.6.1 Sodium Chemicals - Two Examples

281

(1)

11.6.2 Sodium Metal

282

(1)

11.7 Uses of Sodium Metal and Its Compounds

282

(1)

11.8 Potassium in Our Time

283

(1)

11.8.1 Occurrence

283

(1)

11.9 Uses

284

(1)

11.10 Sodium and Potassium in Biological Systems

284

(3)

12 Lithium

287

(14)

12.1 Li Facts about Lithium

287

(4)

12.2 Discovery

291

(1)

12.2.1 A Versatile Brazilian Prepares the Lithium Discovery

291

(1)

12.2.2 A New Employee Makes an Analysis and Ends Up in the History of Science

292

(2)

12.2.3 The Mines on the Island of Utö

294

(1)

12.2.4 Journeys and Informal Conversations in the Wake of Lithium

294

(1)

12.2.5 Lithium Metal

295

(1)

12.3 Occurrence

296

(1)

12.3.1 Minerals

296

(1)

12.3.2 Natural Brines

297

(1)

12.4 Manufacture

297

(1)

12.5 Uses

297

(1)

12.5.1 Glass and Ceramics

297

(1)

12.5.2 Catalysis and Components in Organic Chemistry

298

(1)

12.5.3 In Aircraft

298

(1)

12.5.4 New Batteries

298

(1)

12.5.5 A Special Use

299

(1)

12.5.6 Advanced Nuclear Applications

299

(1)

12.5.7 Lithium and Hydrogen

299

(1)

12.6 Lithium Saves Life

300

(1)

13 Rubidium and Cesium

301

(14)

13.1 Rb Facts about Rubidium

301

(4)

13.1 Cs Facts about Cesium

305

(4)

13.2 Discovery

309

(1)

13.2.1 Cesium - Named From the Blue Sky

309

(1)

13.2.2 Rubidium - More Red Than Red

310

(1)

13.3 Rubidium in Our Time

310

(1)

13.3.1 Occurrence and Manufacture

310

(1)

13.3.2 Uses

310

(1)

13.4 Cesium in Our Time

311

(1)

13.4.1 Occurrence and Manufacture

311

(1)

13.4.2 Uses

312

(1)

13.4.3 Cesium and Radioactive Pollution

313

(1)

13.5 Biological Roles

313

(2)

14 Magnesium and Calcium

315

(26)

14.1 Mg Facts about Magnesium

315

(4)

14.1 Ca Facts about Calcium

319

(4)

14.2 Alkaline Earth Metals - A Brief Outline

323

(1)

14.3 Magnesium and Calcium in Chemical History

324

(1)

14.3.1 Known Since Antiquity

324

(1)

14.3.2 Lime

324

(1)

14.3.3 Gypsum

325

(1)

14.3.4 Magnesia Alba and Usta

325

(1)

14.3.5 The Bitter Salt From Epsom

325

(1)

14.3.6 Carving in Stone

326

(1)

14.3.7 Magnesium and Calcium Metals

327

(1)

14.3.8 Etymology

328

(1)

14.4 Magnesium in Our Time

328

(1)

14.4.1 Occurrence

328

(1)

14.4.2 Manufacture of Magnesium Metal

329

(1)

14.4.3 Uses of Magnesium Metal and Compounds

330

(2)

14.5 Calcium in Our Time

332

(1)

14.5.1 Occurrence

332

(2)

14.5.2 Water Hardness

334

(2)

14.5.3 Manufacture of Calcium Metal

336

(1)

14.5.4 Use of Calcium Metal and Compounds

336

(2)

14.6 Biological Roles

338

(1)

14.6.1 Magnesium

338

(1)

14.6.2 Calcium

338

(3)

15 Beryllium

341

(14)

15.1 Be Facts about Beryllium

341

(4)

15.2 Discovery

345

(1)

15.2.1 Precious Stones Known Since Antiquity

345

(1)

15.2.2 Emerald - A Royal Nose Adornment

346

(1)

15.2.3 ...Destroys Precious Stones but Discovers a New Element

346

(2)

15.2.4 The Next Step - Beryllium Metal

348

(1)

15.2.5 The Chemistry of Beryllium Confuses and Becomes Clearer

348

(1)

15.2.6 Beryllium in an Atomic Theory Breakthrough

349

(1)

15.3 Occurrence

350

(1)

15.3.1 Bertrandite and Beryl - Industrial Beryllium Minerals

350

(1)

15.3.2 Emerald for Gemstones

350

(1)

15.4 Manufacture

350

(1)

15.5 Uses

351

(1)

15.5.1 Special Applications

351

(1)

15.5.2 Volume Products

352

(1)

15.6 Beryllium - A Toxic Element

352

(3)

16 Strontium and Barium

355

(18)

16.1 Sr Facts about Strontium

355

(4)

16.1 Ba Facts about Barium

359

(4)

16.2 Strontium and Barium in Chemical History

363

(1)

16.2.1 Heavy Spar - Barite

363

(1)

16.2.2 Bolognian Stone - Shining in Darkness

364

(1)

16.2.3 Terra ponderosa From Strontian

364

(1)

16.2.4 The Actual Metals in the Alkaline Earths

365

(2)

16.3 Strontium in Our Time

367

(1)

16.3.1 Occurrence

367

(1)

16.3.2 Manufacture

367

(1)

16.3.3 Uses of Strontium

368

(1)

16.4 Barium in Our Time

368

(1)

16.4.1 Occurrence

368

(1)

16.4.2 Manufacture

369

(1)

16.4.3 Uses

369

(2)

16.5 Colors and Sparks in Fireworks

371

(1)

16.6 Biological Roles

372

(1)

17 Scandium, Yttrium, Lanthanum and the 14 Lanthanides - Rare Earth Metals REMs

373

(120)

17.1 Sc Facts about Scandium

374

(4)

17.1 Y Facts about Yttrium

378

(4)

17.1 La Facts about Lanthanum

382

(4)

17.1 Ce Facts about Cerium

386

(4)

17.1 Pr Facts about Praseodymium

390

(3)

17.1 Nd Facts about Neodymium

393

(3)

17.1 Pm Facts about Promethium

396

(3)

17.1 Sm Facts about Samarium

399

(3)

17.1 Eu Facts about Europium

402

(3)

17.1 Gd Facts about Gadolinium

405

(3)

17.1 Tb Facts about Terbium

408

(3)

17.1 Dy Facts about Dysprosium

411

(3)

17.1 Ho Facts about Holmium

414

(3)

17.1 Er Facts about Erbium

417

(3)

17.1 Tm Facts about Thulium

420

(3)

17.1 Yb Facts about Ytterbium

423

(3)

17.1 Lu Facts about Lutetium

426

(3)

17.2 Rare Earth Metals in the Periodic Table - and in Nature

429

(1)

17.2.1 A Very Special Place in the Periodic Table

429

(1)

17.2.2 Rare - But Common

430

(2)

17.3 Many Complex Turns

432

(1)

17.3.1 They did it

432

(1)

17.3.2 Schedule and naming

433

(1)

17.4 The Long Story of Discovery

433

(31)

17.4.1 The Discovery of Gadolinite in Ytterby - The Beginning

433

(3)

17.4.2 The Element Yttrium

436

(1)

17.4.3 Bastnaes' Contributions to REM Development

437

(2)

17.4.4 Ironworks Proprietor and Scientist

439

(2)

17.4.5 Jons Jacob Berzelius - Chemist and Mineralogist

441

(2)

17.4.6 To Separate the Almost Inseparable

443

(3)

17.4.7 Mosander's Discoveries Checked. Were They Correct?

446

(2)

17.4.8 A Research Leap in 1880 - Bold New Goals

448

(3)

17.4.9 Scandium - eka-Boron

451

(3)

17.4.10 Splitting of the Twin

454

(2)

17.4.11 Lutetium and Ytterbium

456

(3)

17.4.12 The Lanthanides and the Periodic Table

459

(2)

17.4.13 The Fourteenth and Last Lanthanide

461

(3)

17.5 The Special Nature of the Lanthanide Elements

464

(1)

17.5.1 Electron Configuration and Chemistry

464

(1)

17.5.2 Electron Configuration and Color

465

(1)

17.5.3 Electron Configuration and Magnetic Properties

467

(1)

17.6 Occurrence of Rare Earth Metals

468

(1)

17.6.1 Geochemistry Is a Guide

468

(1)

17.6.2 Monazite and Bastnaesite in Many Places

469

(1)

17.6.3 ...But China Has Most of It

470

(1)

17.6.4 Worldwide Mine Production and Reserves

471

(1)

17.7 Separation of the RE Elements

471

(1)

17.7.1 Fractional Crystallization

472

(1)

17.7.2 Using the Differences in the Basicities of the Oxides

473

(1)

17.7.3 Separation Using Ion Exchange

474

(1)

17.7.4 Liquid-Liquid Extraction

474

(1)

17.8 Manufacture of Rare Earth Metals

475

(1)

17.8.1 REO Manufacture - One Example

475

(1)

17.8.2 Pure RE Metals

476

(1)

17.9 Rare Earth Metals in Modern Technology - Examples

476

(1)

17.10 Applications - Some Examples

477

(14)

17.10.1 Scandium

477

(1)

17.10.2 Yttrium

478

(2)

17.10.3 Lanthanum

480

(2)

17.10.4 Cerium

482

(1)

17.10.5 Praseodymium

483

(1)

17.10.6 Neodymium

483

(1)

17.10.7 Promethium

484

(1)

17.10.8 Samarium

485

(1)

17.10.9 Europium

485

(1)

17.10.10 Gadolinium

486

(2)

17.10.11 Terbium

488

(1)

17.10.12 Dysprosium

489

(1)

17.10.13 Holmium

489

(1)

17.10.14 Erbium

490

(1)

17.10.15 Thulium

490

(1)

17.10.16 Ytterbium

490

(1)

17.10.17 Lutetium

490

(1)

17.11 Prices - Not Just a Question of Metal Content in the Earth's Crust

491

(1)

17.12 Biological Roles for Rare Earth Elements

492

(1)

18 Titanium

493

(18)

18.1 Ti Facts about Titanium

493

(4)

18.2 Discovery

497

(1)

18.2.1 Mind and Matter

497

(1)

18.2.2 Gregor's Menachanite Returns as Klaproth's Titanium

498

(1)

18.2.3 Hunting Titanium Metal

499

(1)

18.3 Titanium Minerals

500

(1)

18.3.1 A Widely Distributed Metal

500

(1)

18.3.2 Production of Mineral Concentrates

501

(1)

18.4 Production of Titanium Oxide - Titanium White

501

(1)

18.5 Titanium Metals and Alloys

502

(1)

18.5.1 Chlorine Metallurgy - The Kroll Process

502

(2)

18.5.2 Purification and Melting

504

(1)

18.5.3 Ferrotitanium

505

(1)

18.6 Modern Uses of Titanium and Titanium Compounds

505

(1)

18.6.1 Titanium White - Titanium Oxide

505

(1)

18.6.2 Corrosion-resistant Metal

506

(1)

18.6.3 Compatibility with Human Tissue

506

(1)

18.6.4 A Metal for the Space Age

506

(1)

18.6.5 Stainless Steels With Titanium - Stainless Even After Welding

507

(1)

18.6.6 Titanium Carbide and Titanium Nitride - Important Hard Materials

507

(1)

18.6.7 Coating With Titanium Carbide and Nitride in Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Processes

507

(1)

18.7 The Biological Role of Titanium

508

(3)

19 Zirconium

511

(12)

19.1 Zr Facts about Zirconium

511

(4)

19.2 Discovery

515

(1)

19.2.1 Hyacinth in the Revelations

515

(1)

19.2.2 A First Sight of Zirconium Metal

516

(1)

19.3 Zirconium Minerals

516

(1)

19.3.1 General

516

(1)

19.3.2 The Mineral Zircon - Zirconium Silicate

516

(1)

19.3.3 Baddeleyite - Zirconium Oxide

517

(1)

19.4 Modern Uses of Zircon and Zirconium Oxide

517

(1)

19.4.1 General Ceramic Applications...

517

(1)

19.4.2 ...and Some Very Special Ones

518

(1)

19.4.3 Transformation-toughened Zirconia

518

(1)

19.4.4 White Ceramics Containing Zirconia

519

(1)

19.4.5 Zirconium in Ultrasonic Transducers

519

(1)

19.5 Zirconium Metal and Alloys

520

(1)

19.5.1 The Start of Industrial Production

520

(1)

19.5.2 Modern Zirconium Metal Manufacture

520

(1)

19.5.3 Zirconium for Nuclear Power

521

(1)

19.5.4 Zirconium - Special Uses

522

(1)

19.6 Biological Role

522

(1)

20 Hafnium

523

(8)

20.1 Hf Facts about Hafnium

523

(4)

20.2 Discovery

527

(1)

20.3 Minerals

528

(1)

20.4 Manufacture of Hafnium

529

(1)

20.5 Uses of Hafnium

529

(1)

20.6 Biological Role

529

(2)

21 Vanadium

531

(18)

21.1 V Facts about Vanadium

531

(4)

21.2 Discovery

535

(1)

21.2.1 To the New World

535

(1)

21.2.2 A New Metal in Zimapan's Brown Lead Mineral?

536

(1)

21.2.3 A Doctor Becomes a Metallurgist

537

(1)

21.2.4 Iron With Cold Brittleness

538

(1)

21.2.5 Del Rio's Lost Element Appears in Sweden

538

(2)

21.2.6 A Scientific Triangle Drama

540

(2)

21.2.7 Vanadium Metal in History

542

(1)

21.3 Vanadium in Nature

543

(1)

21.3.1 Vanadium Minerals

543

(1)

21.3.2 Vanadium in Different Sources

543

(1)

21.3.3 Vanadium in Titaniferous Rock

543

(1)

21.4 Mine Production

544

(1)

21.5 Manufacture of Vanadium and Vanadium Products

544

(1)

21.5.1 Vanadium Pentoxide From Iron Ores

544

(1)

21.5.2 Manufacture of Vanadium Metal

545

(1)

21.5.3 Manufacture of Ferrovanadium

545

(1)

21.6 Uses of Vanadium

546

(1)

21.7 Biological Role

546

(3)

22 Niobium

549

(12)

22.1 Nb Facts about Niobium

549

(4)

22.2 Discovery

553

(1)

22.2.1 Native Peoples Hunting Minerals

553

(1)

22.2.2 A Discovery in the Museum

553

(1)

22.2.3 One Element or Two?

554

(2)

22.2.4 A New Name Question

556

(1)

22.2.5 The Element Niobium

556

(1)

22.2.6 The Niobium and Vanadium Discoveries - Great Similarities

556

(1)

22.3 Niobium and Tantalum Minerals

557

(1)

22.4 Industrial Niobium Manufacture

558

(1)

22.4.1 Separation of Niobium and Tantalum

558

(1)

22.4.2 Manufacture of Niobium Metal and Ferroniobium

558

(1)

22.5 Uses of Niobium

559

(1)

22.6 Niobium in Life

559

(2)

23 Tantalum

561

(10)

23.1 Ta Facts about Tantalum

561

(4)

23.2 Discovery

565

(1)

23.2.1 Ekeberg - Weak, Strong and Versatile

565

(1)

23.2.2 Tantalus - Son of Zeus

566

(1)

23.2.3 Tantalum or Columbium?

566

(1)

23.2.4 The Element Tantalum

567

(1)

23.3 Tantalum and Niobium Minerals

567

(1)

23.4 Industrial Tantalum Manufacture

568

(1)

23.5 Uses of Tantalum

569

(1)

23.5.1 Excellent Corrosion Resistance

569

(1)

23.5.2 The Modern Capacitor

569

(1)

23.6 Tantalum in Life

569

(2)

24 Chromium

571

(18)

24.1 Cr Facts about Chromium

571

(4)

24.2 Discovery

575

(1)

24.2.1 Europe Meets Asia

575

(1)

24.2.2 Siberian Red Lead

576

(1)

24.2.3 From the Outskirts of the French Revolution to the Center of Chemistry

576

(1)

24.2.4 The Discovery of the New Metal Chromium

577

(1)

24.2.5 Chromos in Cleopatra's Emeralds and in Red Rubies

578

(1)

24.2.6 Hard on the Heels of the Discovery of Chromium

579

(1)

24.3 Chromium Deposits

580

(1)

24.3.1 Large-scale Chromite Discoveries

580

(1)

24.3.2 Deposits and Production of Chromite in Our Time

580

(1)

24.4 Manufacture of Chromium Products

581

(1)

24.4.1 An Overview

581

(1)

24.4.2 Chromium Chemicals

581

(1)

24.4.3 Refractory

582

(1)

24.4.4 Chromium Metal

582

(1)

24.4.5 Ferrochromium - The Raw Material for Stainless Steels

583

(1)

24.5 Why Are Stainless Steels Stainless?

584

(1)

24.6 Chromium Plating and Chromating

585

(1)

24.6.1 Chromium Plating

586

(1)

24.6.2 Chromating

587

(1)

24.7 Chromium - A Poison or an Essential Element for Life?

587

(1)

24.7.1 Dangerous or Not Dangerous?

587

(1)

24.7.2 An Essential Element for Life!

588

(1)

25 Molybdenum

589

(16)

25.1 Mo Facts about Molybdenum

589

(4)

25.2 Discovery

593

(1)

25.2.1 Molybdcena - A Lead Ore Without Lead

593

(1)

23.2.2 A Trainee Shows the Way

593

(1)

25.2.3 A New Earth Is Identified

594

(1)

25.2.4 A New Metal That I Called Molybdcenum

595

(2)

25.3 Molybdenum Deposits in Our Time

597

(1)

25.3.1 Types of Minerals and Ores

597

(1)

25.3.2 World Resources, Mine Production and Ore Concentration

598

(2)

25.4 Manufacture of Molybdenum Metal and Alloys

600

(1)

25.4.1 Molybdenum Metal

600

(1)

25.4.2 Ferromolybdenum

600

(1)

25.5 Modern Uses of Molybdenum

600

(1)

25.5.1 An Overview

600

(1)

25.5.2 Some Specific Examples

601

(2)

25.6 An Essential Trace Element for Life

603

(2)

26 Tungsten

605

(20)

26.1 W Facts about Tungsten

605

(4)

26.2 Discovery

609

(1)

26.2.1 Jupiter's Wolf and the Wolf's Foam

609

(1)

26.2.2 Tungstic Acid Appears

609

(1)

26.2.3 The Mineral Tungsten

610

(1)

26.2.4 Hunting Tungstic Acid

610

(1)

26.2.5 The Seminary of Vergara in the Basque Country

611

(1)

26.2.6 The Spanish Brothers Discover the New Metal

612

(2)

26.2.7 A Tungsten Contribution of an Adventurer

614

(1)

26.2.8 A Name for the New Metal

615

(1)

26.2.9 Scheelite Remembers Scheele

615

(1)

26.3 Tungsten in Nature

615

(1)

26.3.1 Tungsten Minerals

615

(1)

26.3.2 Tungsten Deposits

616

(1)

26.3.3 Production Technique for Tungsten Concentrate

616

(1)

26.3.4 The World Production from Mines

617

(1)

26.4 Chemistry at Work With Tungsten Products

618

(1)

26.5 Metallurgy and Powder Metallurgy at Work with Tungsten Products

619

(1)

26.5.1 Ferrotungsten

619

(1)

26.5.2 Cemented Carbide or Hard Metal Produced With Powder Metallurgy

619

(1)

26.6 Modern Uses of Tungsten and Tungsten Products

619

(1)

26.6.1 General Applications

619

(1)

26.6.2 In Service for Lighting

620

(1)

26.6.3 Tungsten in Tool Materials

620

(3)

26.7 Tungsten in Life

623

(2)

27 Manganese

625

(18)

27.1 Mn Facts about Manganese

625

(4)

27.2 Discovery

629

(1)

27.2.1 "Braunstein" for Coloring - and Discoloring - of the Glass Melt. Transforms Copper to Silver!

629

(1)

27.2.2 Braunstein, Pyrolusite, What Is It in Reality?

630

(1)

27.2.3 Early Attempts to Find the Metal in Pyrolusite

631

(1)

27.2.4 The Pyrolusite Chemistry Clears Up

631

(3)

27.2.5 Finally an Accepted Metal in Pyrolusite

634

(1)

27.2.6 A Name for the New Metal

635

(1)

27.2.7 Manganese in Iron Ores

636

(1)

27.3 Manganese Deposits in Our Time

636

(1)

27.3.1 Manganese Minerals

636

(1)

27.3.2 Manganese Ores

637

(1)

27.3.3 Mine Production of Manganese

637

(1)

27.3.4 Manganese Nodules in the Ocean

637

(1)

27.4 Manufacture of Some Manganese Products

638

(1)

27.4.1 Ferromanganese

638

(1)

27.4.2 Manganese Metal

638

(1)

27.4.3 Manganese Dioxide

639

(1)

27.5 Uses of Manganese and Manganese Products

639

(1)

27.5.1 Manganese in Steel

639

(1)

27.5 2 Manganese in Aluminum and Copper Alloys

640

(1)

27.5.3 Battery Applications

640

(1)

27.5.4 Other Uses of Manganese Chemicals

640

(1)

27.6 Manganese in Life

641

(1)

27.6.1 A Toxic Element...

641

(1)

27.6.2 ...but Essential for Life

641

(2)

28 Technetium

643

(12)

28.1 Tc Facts about Technetium

643

(4)

28.2 Discovery

647

(1)

28.2.1 Element 43 Is Wanted

647

(1)

28.2.2 An Elusive Shadow

647

(1)

28.2.3 Arduous and Almost Impossible

648

(2)

28.2.4 To Discover an Element That Does Not Exist!

650

(1)

28.2.5 Finally a Name for Element 43

651

(1)

28.2.6 Was Masurium Element 43?

651

(1)

28.2.7 Technetium in Weighable Quantities

652

(1)

28.3 Technetium - Properties and Uses

652

(1)

28.3.1 The Isotopes

652

(1)

28.3.2 From the Nuclear Reactor to the Human Body - The Medical Uses of Technetium

653

(2)

29 Rhenium

655

(12)

29.1 Re Facts about Rhenium

655

(4)

29.2 Discovery

659

(1)

29.2.1 Where Should Elements 43 and 75 Be Looked For?

659

(1)

29.2.2 The River Rhein but not the Region Masurien

660

(1)

29.2.3 A Worldwide Search for Rhenium

661

(2)

29.2.4 High Concentrations of Rhenium are Unexpectedly Found at Home!

663

(1)

29.3 Rhenium Sources in Modern Times

663

(1)

29.4 Modern Techniques for Manufacturing Rhenium

664

(1)

29.5 Uses of Rhenium

665

(1)

29.6 The Biological Role of Rhenium

666

(1)

30 Cobalt

667

(18)

30.1 Co Facts about Cobalt

667

(4)

30.2 Discovery

671

(1)

30.2.1 Blue Glass and Pottery, Known to the Ancients

671

(1)

30.2.2 Kobolds - Demons in the Lower Regions

671

(1)

30.2.3 The Worthless Can Be Valuable

671

(1)

30.2.4 Why Did Glass become Blue?

672

(2)

30.2.5 A Cobalt Mine World-famous for Nickel

674

(1)

30.3 Cobalt Deposits

675

(1)

30.3.1 Cobalt Minerals

675

(1)

30.3.2 Cobalt Ores

675

(1)

30.3.3 Cobalt Reserves

676

(1)

30.3.4 The Production in Mines

677

(1)

30.4 Manufacture of Cobalt Products from Ores and Concentrates

677

(1)

30.4.1 Production Technique

677

(1)

30.4.2 Cobalt Metal Production

678

(1)

30.5 Uses of Cobalt

679

(1)

30.5.1 Alloys and Cemented Carbides

679

(1)

30.5.2 Catalysts

680

(1)

30.5.3 Coloring and Decolorizing - Glass, Paints, Aluminum Cladding

680

(1)

30.5.4 A Moisture Detector and an Invisible Ink

681

(1)

30.5.5 Collecting Solar Energy

681

(1)

30.5.6 Radioactive Cobalt

681

(1)

30.6 Cobalt in Life

682

(1)

30.6.1 Risks with Cobalt

682

(1)

30.6.2 Essential for Life

682

(3)

31 Nickel

685

(22)

31.1 Ni Facts about Nickel

685

(4)

31.2 Discovery

689

(1)

31.2.1 "Cobalt That Has Lost Its Soul"

689

(1)

31.2.2 A Copper Ore Without Copper!

689

(1)

31.2.3 The Discovery of Nickel

689

(3)

31.3 A. F. Cronstedt - An Individual Chapter in the History of Chemistry and Mineralogy

692

(1)

31.3.1 A Short, Active Life

692

(1)

31.3.2 Preparation for Big Tasks

692

(1)

31.3.3 A New Mineralogical System

693

(1)

31.4 Were the Chinese First to Discover Nickel?

693

(1)

31.5 Nickel Deposits

694

(1)

31.5.1 Nickel Minerals and Ores

694

(2)

31.5.2 Nickel Occurrence

696

(1)

31.5.3 Mining of Nickel

697

(1)

31.6 Nickel in Nodules, in Meteorites and in the Earth's Core

698

(1)

31.7 Manufacture of Nickel

699

(1)

31.7.1 Methods for Sulfide Ores - Matte Production

699

(1)

31.7.2 A Variety of Refining Processes

700

(1)

31.7.3 Methods for Laterite Ores

701

(1)

31.8 Uses of Nickel

701

(1)

31.8.1 Alloys

701

(1)

31.8.2 Nickel-based Batteries

702

(1)

31.8.3 Nickel Plating

703

(1)

31.8.4 Catalysts

704

(1)

31.9 Nickel in Life

704

(1)

31.9.1 Very Similar but Quite Different!

704

(3)

32 Platinum Group Metals

707

(52)

32.1 Ru Facts about Ruthenium

707

(4)

32.1 Rh Facts about Rhodium

711

(4)

32.1 Pd Facts about Palladium

715

(4)

32.1 Os Facts about Osmium

719

(4)

32.1 Ir Facts about Iridium

723

(4)

32.1 Pt Facts about Platinum

727

(4)

32.2 The Platinum Group Metals - PGMs - An Overview

731

(1)

32.3 Discovery of Natural Platinum

732

(1)

32.3.1 A Stranger Among the Hieroglyphs

732

(1)

32.3.2 Platinum in the Old World

732

(1)

32.3.3 Platinum in South America

733

(3)

32.3.4 Platinum and the Form of the Earth

736

(1)

32.3.5 Platinum in Europe

736

(4)

32.4 The Discovery of Platinum Metals in Platinum

740

(1)

32.4.1 Tennant and Wollaston

740

(2)

32.4.2 Osmium and Iridium

742

(1)

32.4.3 Palladium and Rhodium

743

(1)

32.4.4 Ruthenium

744

(1)

32.4.5 Malleable Platinum

745

(1)

32.5 Occurrence of the Platinum Group Metals

745

(1)

32.5.1 The Geology

745

(1)

32.5.2 Platinum Group Metals - Reserves

746

(1)

32.6 Production of Platinum-group Metals (PGMs)

747

(1)

32.6.1 Mining

747

(1)

32.6.2 Enrichment of the PGMs

748

(1)

32.6.3 Separating Platinum, Palladium, Iridium, Osmium, Rhodium and Ruthenium

748

(1)

32.6.4 Quantities of Platinum, Palladium and other PGMs Produced

749

(1)

32.7 Uses of the Platinum Group Metals

749

(1)

32.7.1 An Overview

749

(1)

32.7.2 Platinum

750

(1)

32.7.3 Palladium

751

(3)

32.7.4 Rhodium

754

(1)

32.7.5 Iridium

755

(1)

32.7.6 Osmium

755

(1)

32.7.7 Ruthenium

756

(1)

32.8 The Varying Value of Platinum Metals

756

(1)

32.9 Biological Roles of Metals in the Platinum Group

756

(3)

33 Zinc

759

(18)

33.1 Zn Facts about Zinc

759

(4)

33.2 Zinc in History

763

(1)

33.2.1 A Metal From the Far East

763

(1)

33.2.2 Marco Polo in the Pioneering Region of Zinc Manufacture

764

(1)

33.2.3 Zinc Metal in India and China

764

(2)

33.2.4 Zinc Metal in Europe and America

766

(1)

33.3 Mining of Zinc

767

(1)

33.3.1 Minerals and Zinc Ores

767

(1)

33.3.2 Mine Production of Zinc

768

(1)

33.4 Modern Zinc Manufacture

769

(1)

33.4.1 Production of Zinc From Sulfide Ore

769

(2)

33.4.2 Production Volumes

771

(1)

33.5 Uses

772

(1)

33.5.1 Zinc Alloys - Not Only Brass

772

(1)

33.5.2 Corrosion Protection

772

(2)

33.5.3 Chemicals

774

(1)

33.6 Zinc in Life

775

(2)

34 Cadmium

777

(14)

34.1 Cd Facts about Cadmium

777

(4)

34.2 Discovery

781

(1)

34.2.1 A Broad Field of Activities

781

(1)

34.2.2 White Zinc Oxide - Yellow!

781

(1)

34.2.3 Accused for Mixing Arsenic Into Medicine - Exculpated by Stromeyer

782

(1)

34.2.4 A Place in the Discovery Story of the Elements

783

(1)

34.3 Occurrence and Manufacture

783

(2)

34.4 Uses

785

(1)

34.4.1 An Outline

785

(1)

34.4.2 Corrosion Protection and Friction Reduction

785

(1)

34.4.3 NiCd Batteries

785

(1)

34.4.4 Cadmium Pigments and Cadmium Stabilizers Need Substitutes

786

(1)

34.4.5 Cadmium in "Guinness World Records""

786

(1)

34.4.6 What to Do With Cadmium?

787

(1)

34.5 Cadmium in the Environment

787

(1)

34.5.1 Cadmium Uptake From Food and Air

787

(1)

34.5.2 Why Is Cadmium Toxic?

788

(1)

34.5.3 The Route of Cadmium in the Body

788

(1)

34.5.4 Successful Environmental Work Regarding Cadmium

788

(1)

34.5.5 Legislation and Government Programs

789

(2)

35 Mercury

791

(14)

35.1 Hg Facts about Mercury

791

(4)

35.2 Mercury in History

795

(1)

35.2.1 Known in Old Egypt and in China

795

(1)

35.2.2 Minium and Cinnabar for Decoration

795

(1)

35.2.3 "Living Silver" - A Messenger From the Gods

796

(2)

35.2.4 A Major Element for Alchemy and for Experimental Physics

798

(1)

35.2.5 The Gold and Silver Countries in South America Needed Mercury

798

(1)

35.3 Occurrence and Manufacture in Our Time

798

(1)

35.4 The Toxicity of Mercury

799

(1)

35.4.1 Mercury and Mercury Compounds

799

(1)

35.4.2 Minamata Disease

800

(1)

35.5 The Sources of Mercury Emissions

801

(1)

35.6 The Technical Use of Mercury

801

(1)

35.6.1 Metal and Chemicals in Science and Technology

801

(1)

35.6.2 Mercury in Lighting

802

(1)

35.6.3 Mercury in Batteries

802

(1)

35.6.4 Amalgamation in Large-Scale Industry

802

(1)

35.6.5 Amalgam in Dental Fillings

803

(2)

36 Boron

805

(14)

36.1 B Facts about Boron

805

(4)

36.2 Boron in History

809

(1)

36.2.1 Preludes

809

(1)

36.2.2 The Discovery of Boron

810

(1)

36.3 Boron Occurrence in Our Time

811

(1)

36.3.1 An Unexpected Find at the Building of a Sanitarium

811

(1)

36.3.2 Borate Deposits in the World

811

(2)

36.4 Common Boron Products and Their Uses

813

(1)

36.4.1 Borax and Boric Acid

813

(1)

36.4.2 Borax Glass Products

813

(1)

36.4.3 Boron in Laundry Products

814

(1)

36.4.4 Boron in Agricultural Products

814

(1)

36.4.5 Flame Retardants

814

(1)

36.5 Special Boron Products and Applications

815

(1)

36.5.1 Elemental Boron

815

(1)

36.5.2 The Special Boron Isotope 10B

815

(1)

36.5.3 Boron Carbide

816

(1)

36.5.4 Boron Nitride - Soft as Graphite and Hard as Diamond

816

(1)

36.5.5 Boron in Batteries and Fuel Cells

817

(1)

36.5.6 Boron in Steel

817

(1)

36.6 Boron in the Life of Animals and Humans

818

(1)

37 Aluminum

819

(26)

37.1 Al Facts about Aluminum

819

(4)

37.2 Aluminum in History

823

(1)

37.2.1 The Early History of Aluminum is Alum's History

823

(1)

37.2.2 The Discovery of Aluminum

824

(1)

37.2.3 Aluminum - More Elegant Than Gold in the Imperial Service

825

(1)

37.2.4 Electrolysis in Molten Cryolite - Basis for Modern Aluminum Production

826

(2)

37.3 The Raw Materials for Aluminum Manufacture

828

(1)

37.3.1 Bauxite

828

(1)

37.3.2 Aluminum Oxide

829

(1)

37.3.3 Cryolite - "Ice Stone"

830

(1)

37.4 Aluminum Manufacture

830

(1)

37.4.1 Primary Aluminum

830

(1)

37.4.2 Recycled Aluminum (Secondary Aluminum)

831

(1)

37.4.3 Manufacture of Rolled Products (Plate, Strip, Sheet, Foil) and Extruded Profiles

832

(1)

37.4.4 World Production of Aluminum

833

(1)

37.5 An Alloy Family With Possibilities

833

(1)

37.5.1 The Properties of Aluminum

833

(1)

37.5.2 Aluminum Alloys

834

(2)

37.6 Surface Treatment of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

836

(1)

37.6.1 Surface Treatment of Aluminum - Why?

836

(1)

37.6.2 Anodizing

837

(2)

37.6.3 Chromating

839

(1)

37.7 Uses of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

839

(1)

37.7.1 Exclusive and Ordinary

839

(3)

37.7.2 The Right Alloy for Specific Purposes

842

(1)

37.8 Aluminum in Life

843

(2)

38 Gallium, Indium and Thallium

845

(24)

38.1 Ga Facts about Gallium

845

(4)

38.1 In Facts about Indium

849

(4)

38.1 Tl Facts about Thallium

853

(4)

38.2 The History Behind the Discoveries

857

(1)

38.2.1 Thallium (1861)

857

(1)

38.2.2 Indium (1863)

858

(2)

38.2.3 Gallium (1875)

860

(2)

38.3 Occurrence

862

(1)

38.3.1 Gallium

862

(1)

38.3.2 Indium

862

(1)

38.3.3 Thallium

863

(1)

38.4 Manufacture of Metals and Compounds

863

(1)

38.4.1 Gallium

863

(1)

38.4.2 Indium

863

(1)

38.4.3 Thallium

864

(1)

38.5 Properties and Uses

864

(1)

38.5.1 Gallium

864

(1)

38.5.2 Indium

865

(1)

38.5.3 Thallium

866

(1)

38.6 Ecological Effects

867

(2)

39 Carbon

869

(28)

39.1 C Facts about Carbon

869

(4)

39.2 A Long History

873

(1)

39.3 Carbon in Space

874

(1)

39.4 Back to Carbon on Earth

875

(1)

39.5 Coal for Power Generation and Metallurgical Coke

876

(1)

39.5.1 Different Fields of Application

876

(1)

39.5.2 Environmental Problems of Burning Coal

877

(1)

39.6 Carbon Black and Active Carbon

877

(1)

39.7 Graphite

878

(1)

39.7.1 The Atomic Arrangement Determines Its Properties

878

(1)

39.7.2 Natural and Synthetic Graphite

879

(1)

39.7.3 Occurrence and Production

879

(1)

39.7.4 Applications for Graphite

880

(1)

39.8 Diamond

880

(1)

39.8.1 Graphite and Diamond

880

(1)

39.8.2 Structure and External Symmetry

881

(1)

39.8.3 Diamonds in the Ground

883

(1)

39.8.4 Winning of Diamond

883

(1)

39.8.5 World Supply of Natural Diamonds

884

(1)

39.8.6 Use of Natural Diamonds in Industry

885

(1)

39.8.7 Gemstone Diamonds

886

(3)

39.9 Fullerenes

889

(1)

39.10 Synthetic Diamond

889

(1)

39.10.1 Synthesis of Diamond

889

(2)

39.10.2 Uses of Synthetic Diamond

891

(1)

39.11 The Carbon Cycle

892

(1)

39.12 The Greenhouse Effect

892

(1)

39.12.1 General

892

(1)

39.12.2 Let Us Be Speculative...

893

(1)

39.12.3 ...and Realistic

893

(1)

39.13 Dating With the Carbon-14 Method

894

(3)

40 Silicon

897

(26)

40.1 Si Facts about Silicon

897

(4)

40.2 A Question From Antiquity Is Answered

901

(1)

40.3 Silicates - The Basic Building Blocks of Rocks

902

(1)

40.3.1 In the Middle of the Periodic Table

902

(1)

40.3.2 A Simple and Elegant Architecture

903

(2)

40.3.3 Nesosilicates

905

(1)

40.3.4 Sorosilicates

906

(1)

40.3.5 Cyclosilicates

907

(1)

40.3.6 Inosilicates - Chain and Band Structures

908

(1)

40.3.7 Phyllosilicates - Flat Sheets With Infinite Extent

909

(2)

40.3.8 Tectosilicates - A Three-Dimensional Network

911

(1)

40.3.9 Solidification of Molten Rocks and Formation of the Earth

912

(1)

40.4 Silicon - A Key Material in Modern Technology

913

(1)

40.4.1 Our Need for Amplification

913

(1)

40.4.2 Metal or Nonmetal?

913

(1)

40.4.3 Conductors and Semiconductors - Another Principle of Division

914

(1)

40.4.4 Silicon Disks From Silicon Valley and Integrated Circuits from Taiwan

915

(3)

40.5 Other Applications for Silicon

918

(2)

40.6 Silicon in the Environment

920

(1)

40.6.1 Silicosis and Asbestosis

920

(1)

40.6.2 Essential for Some Species

920

(3)

41 Germanium

923

(12)

41.1 Ge Facts about Germanium

923

(4)

41.2 The Discovery of Germanium

927

(3)

41.3 Occurrence and Manufacture

930

(1)

41.4 Properties and Uses

931

(1)

41.4.1 The Transistor - The Greatest Invention of the 20th Century?

931

(1)

41.4.2 Infrared Optics

932

(1)

41.4.3 Fiber Optics and Other Communications Networks

932

(1)

41.4.4 Polymerization Catalysts

933

(1)

41.5 Germanium in the Environment

933

(2)

42 Tin

935

(14)

42.1 Sn Facts about Tin

935

(4)

42.2 Tin in History

939

(2)

42.3 Tin, Stannum, Cassiterite - Why These Names?

941

(1)

42.4 Tin in Cornwall, UK

941

(1)

42.5 Tin Minerals and Ores in the World

942

(2)

42.6 Manufacture of Tin Metal

944

(1)

42.7 Uses of Tin

944

(1)

42.8 Tin Cry and Tin Pest

945

(1)

42.9 Modern Tinning

946

(1)

42.10 Tin in the Environment

946

(3)

43 Lead

949

(22)

43.1 Pb Facts about Lead

949

(4)

43.2 Lead in History

953

(1)

43.2.1 From Time Immemorial

953

(1)

43.2.2 Plumbum and Molybdos

953

(1)

43.2.3 Lead in Water Pipes and Kitchen Pans

954

(3)

43.2.4 Lead in the Armed Services

957

(1)

43.2.5 A Champion of the Environment in Antiquity

957

(1)

43.2.6 Historical Lead Deposits

958

(1)

43.3 The Geology of Lead

959

(1)

43.3.1 The Mineral Galena

959

(1)

43.3.2 Lead Ores

959

(1)

43.4 World Production of Lead in Mines

960

(1)

43.5 The Manufacture of Lead Metal

961

(1)

43.6 Lead Is Still Used

962

(1)

43.6.1 Lead in Crystal Glass

962

(1)

43.6.2 Metallic Lead

963

(1)

43.6.3 Lead in Alloys

964

(1)

43.6.4 Lead in Accumulators

965

(1)

43.6.5 Tetraethyl Lead for Knocking Protection - A Use That Is Disappearing

966

(2)

43.6.6 Paints - With and Without Lead

968

(1)

43.6.7 Environmental Actions Achieve Results

968

(1)

43.7 Why Is Lead an Environmental Problem?

968

(3)

44 Nitrogen

971

(18)

44.1 N Facts about Nitrogen

971

(4)

44.2 Discovery of Nitrogen

975

(1)

44.2.1 Who Discovered Nitrogen?

975

(1)

44.2.2 Daniel Rutherford in Edinburgh

976

(1)

44.2.3 Air and Fire

977

(1)

44.3 Occurrence of Nitrogen

978

(1)

44.3.1 Nitrogen in Aquatic Ecosystems

978

(1)

44.3.2 Saltpeter - Potassium and Sodium

979

(1)

44.3.3 An Inexhaustible Store of Nitrogen

980

(1)

44.4 The Great Demand for Soluble Nitrogen

980

(1)

44.4.1 Birkeland and Eyde Set Fire to the Incombustible

980

(1)

44.4.2 Calcium Cyanamide

980

(1)

44.4.3 Technology Imitates Nature

981

(1)

44.5 Uses of Nitrogen and Nitrogen Products

982

(1)

44.5.1 Nitrogen Gas and Liquid Nitrogen

982

(1)

44.5.2 Ammonia and Nitrogen Oxides

983

(1)

44.5.3 Fertilizers

983

(1)

44.5.4 Gunpowder and Explosives

984

(1)

44.6 Nitride Ceramics

985

(1)

44.6.1 Engineering Ceramics in General

985

(2)

44.6.2 Special Nitride Ceramics

987

(1)

44.7 We Cannot Live Without "Malignant Air" - The Biological Role of Nitrogen

987

(2)

45 Phosphorus

989

(12)

45.1 P Facts about Phosphorus

989

(4)

45.2 A Sensation in Europe

993

(1)

45.3 Phosphorus - A New Medicine

994

(1)

45.4 Phosphorus in the History of Discovering the Elements

995

(1)

45.5 Dangerous Matches and the Safety Match

996

(1)

45.6 Phosphorus - Occurrence and Modern Manufacture

997

(1)

45.7 Phosphorus for Plants

997

(1)

45.8 We Cannot Live Without Phosphorus

998

(3)

46 Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth

1001

(26)

46.1 As Facts about Arsenic

1001

(4)

46.1 Sb Facts about Antimony

1005

(4)

46.1 Bi Facts about Bismuth

1009

(4)

46.2 A Workshop for Alchemists

1013

(1)

46.2.1 Arsenic - Poison and Medicine

1014

(1)

46.2.2 Antimony - Needed for Making Gold

1014

(1)

46.2.3 Alchemy, Iatrochemistry and Remedies

1015

(1)

46.3 Arsenic

1016

(1)

46.3.1 The Discovery of Arsenic

1016

(1)

46.3.2 Arsenic Minerals

1017

(1)

46.3.3 The Toxicity of Arsenic

1017

(1)

46.3.4 Was Napoleon Arsenic-Poisoned?

1017

(1)

46.3.5 Manufacture of Arsenic Products

1018

(1)

46.3.6 Is There Any Use for Arsenic?

1018

(1)

46.3.7 The Assassin's Poison and a Vital Element

1018

(1)

46.4 Antimony

1019

(1)

46.4.1 Ointment, Cosmetic and Medicine

1019

(1)

46.4.2 The Name "Antimony"

1019

(1)

46.4.3 Antimony Metal and Its Alloys in Ancient Times

1019

(2)

46.4.4 Antimony - Occurrence and Modern Uses

1021

(1)

46.5 Bismuth

1022

(1)

46.5.1 Bismuth Metal and Its Alloys in Ancient Times

1022

(1)

46.5.2 The Naming of Bismuth

1023

(1)

46.5.3 Occurrence and Manufacture of Bismuth

1023

(1)

46.5.4 A Metal With Special Properties

1024

(1)

46.5.5 Uses of Bismuth

1024

(3)

47 Oxygen

1027

(18)

47.1 0 Facts about Oxygen

1027

(4)

47.2 Oxygen in History

1031

(1)

47.2.1 Knowledge About Oxygen Before Its Discovery

1031

(1)

47.2.2 Carl Wilhelm Scheele's Discovery of Oxygen

1032

(1)

47.2.3 Joseph Priestley - Faith and Knowledge

1033

(3)

47.2.4 The Discovery of Photosynthesis in 1771

1036

(1)

47.2.5 Priestley's Discovery of Oxygen in 1774

1037

(1)

47.2.6 Oxygen Discoveries and the Chemical Revolution

1038

(1)

47.3 The Occurrence of Oxygen

1039

(1)

47.3.1 Oxygen in the Air and Photosynthesis

1039

(2)

47.3.2 Ozone

1041

(1)

47.4 Manufacture and Use

1042

(1)

47.4.1 Oxygen Gas

1042

(1)

47.4.2 Ozone

1043

(1)

47.5 The Biological Role of Oxygen

1043

(2)

48 Sulfur

1045

(14)

48.1 S Facts about Sulfur

1045

(4)

48.2 Sulfur in History

1049

(1)

48.2.1 Native Sulfur

1049

(1)

48.2.2 Sulfur From Pyrite

1050

(1)

48.3 Occurrence of Sulfur

1051

(1)

48.3.1 Volcanic Sulfur Deposits

1051

(1)

48.3.2 Sulfur-Containing Rocks

1051

(1)

48.3.3. Sulfur in Natural Gas and Mineral Oil

1052

(1)

48.3.4 Pyrite

1052

(1)

48.4 Manufacture of Sulfur and Its Compounds

1052

(1)

48.4.1 Elemental Sulfur

1052

(1)

48.4.2 Sulfuric Acid

1053

(1)

48.4.3 Global Sulfur Production

1053

(1)

48.5 Uses of Sulfur and Sulfur Compounds

1053

(1)

48.5.1 Sulfuric Acid

1053

(1)

48.5.2 Sulfur Dioxide

1053

(1)

48.5.3 Elemental Sulfur

1054

(1)

48.5.4 Sulfur in Various Compounds

1054

(1)

48.5.5 Sulfur in Steel

1055

(1)

48.6 Sulfur in Life

1055

(2)

48.7 The Disturbed Sulfur Cycle

1057

(2)

49 Selenium and Tellurium

1059

(14)

49.1 Se Facts about Selenium

1059

(4)

49.1 Te Facts about Tellurium

1063

(4)

49.2 Discovery

1067

(1)

49.2.1 Tellurium

1067

(1)

49.2.2 Selenium

1068

(1)

49.3 Occurrence

1068

(1)

49.4 Manufacture

1069

(1)

49.5 Uses

1069

(1)

49.5.1 Selenium

1069

(1)

49.5.2 Tellurium

1070

(1)

49.6 Roles of Selenium and Tellurium in Biology

1070

(3)

50 Halogens

1073

(36)

50.1 F Facts about Fluorine

1073

(4)

50.1 Cl Facts about Chlorine

1077

(4)

50.1 Br Facts about Bromine

1081

(4)

50.1 I Facts about Iodine

1085

(4)

50.2 The History of Halogen Discoveries

1089

(1)

50.2.1 The Discovery of Chlorine in 1774

1089

(1)

50.2.2 Chlorine Bleaching - A Simple but Historical Process

1090

(1)

50.2.3 The Discovery of Iodine in 1811

1090

(1)

50.2.4 The Discovery of Bromine in 1825-1826

1091

(2)

50.2.5 The Discovery of Hydrofluoric Acid in 1771

1093

(1)

50.2.6 The Discovery of Fluorine in 1886

1094

(2)

50.3 Occurrence and Manufacture

1096

(1)

50.3.1 Fluorine

1096

(1)

50.3.2 Chlorine

1097

(1)

50.3.3 Bromine

1098

(1)

50.3.4 Iodine

1099

(1)

50.4 Uses of the Halogens

1099

(1)

50.4.1 Fluorine

1099

(1)

50.4.2 Chlorine

1100

(1)

50.4.3 Bromine

1101

(1)

50.4.4 Iodine

1102

(1)

50.5 Halogens and Health

1103

(1)

50.5.1 Fluorine - Skeleton and Teeth

1103

(1)

50.5.2 Chlorine - Vital Yet Highly Dangerous

1103

(4)

50.5.3 Bromine - Medicines and Drugs

1107

(1)

50.5.4 Iodine - Thyroid Gland

1107

(2)

51 Noble Gases

1109

(32)

51.1 He Facts about Helium

1109

(4)

51.1 Ne Facts about Neon

1113

(4)

51.1 Ar Facts about Argon

1117

(4)

51.1 Kr Facts about Krypton

1121

(4)

51.1 Xe Facts about Xenon

1125

(4)

51.2 The Discovery of Argon

1129

(1)

51.2.1 A Hundred-Year-Long "Sleep"

1129

(1)

51.2.2 The Awakening

1129

(1)

51.2.3 A Scotsman Intervenes

1130

(1)

51.2.4 Assiduous Scientists and an Idle Element

1131

(1)

51.3 The Discovery of the Other Noble Gases

1132

(1)

51.3.1 Helium

1132

(1)

51.3.2 Krypton

1133

(1)

51.3.3 Neon

1134

(1)

51.3.4 Xenon

1134

(1)

51.3.5 Nobel Prizes for the Discoverers

1135

(1)

51.4 Manufacture of the Noble Gases

1135

(1)

51.4.1 Helium From Natural Gas

1135

(1)

51.4.2 Other Noble Gases From Liquid Air

1135

(1)

51.5 The Uses of the Noble Gases

1136

(1)

51.5.1 Signs, Lasers and Lighting

1136

(1)

51.5.2 Some Very Special Applications

1137

(1)

51.5.3 Protection or Shielding Gases

1137

(1)

51.5.4 Noble Gases in Plasma Coating

1138

(2)

51.5.5 Pressure Medium and Safe Balloon Filling

1140

(1)

51.5.6 Medical Use

1140

(1)

52 Radioactive Elements

1141

(74)

52.1 Po Facts about Polonium

1141

(3)

52.1 At Facts about Astatine

1144

(3)

52.1 Rn Facts about Radon

1147

(3)

52.1 Fr Facts about Francium

1150

(3)

52.1 Ra Facts about Radium

1153

(3)

52.1 Ac Facts about Actinium

1156

(3)

52.1 Th Facts about Thorium

1159

(4)

52.1 Pa Facts about Protactinium

1163

(3)

52.1 U Facts about Uranium

1166

(4)

52.2 Elements Known Before Radioactivity Was Discovered

1170

(1)

52.2.1 Uranus - The Father of the Gods in Greek Mythology

1170

(1)

52.2.2 Thor - The God of Thunder in Norse Mythology

1171

(1)

52.3 Radioactivity

1172

(1)

52.3.1 Measuring Radioactivity - The Becquerel

1172

(1)

52.3.2 What Is Radioactivity?

1172

(1)

52.3.3 Radioactive Decay

1173

(1)

52.3.4 Activity and Dose

1174

(1)

52.3.5 Radioactive Decay Series

1174

(1)

52.4 Henri Becquerel Discovers Radioactivity

1175

(1)

52.4.1 X-rays

1175

(1)

52.4.2 Uranium Radiation

1177

(5)

52.5 Marie Sklodowska-Curie's Early Years

1182

(1)

52.5.1 A Young Girl Fights for Herself and Her People

1182

(1)

52.5.2 First Degrees and a Happy Time

1183

(1)

52.6 Marie Curie's Work for Her Doctor's Degree

1184

(3)

52.6.1 A Simple Problem Analysis

1184

(1)

52.6.2 Concentrated and Enriching Work

1185

(1)

52.6.3 The Discovery of Polonium

1186

(1)

52.6.4 The Discovery of Radium

1187

(1)

52.7 Marie Curie's Later Life...and Death

1187

(2)

52.7.1 Rewarded for Her Genius

1187

(1)

52.7.2 The Tragedy of Death

1188

(1)

52.7.3 Curie and Debierne Prepare Radium Metal

1189

(1)

52.7.4 An Unprecedented Second Nobel Prize

1189

(1)

52.7.5 A Victim of Radioactivity

1189

(1)

52.8 Radium - its Importance and Use

1189

(1)

52.9 Two Other Key Radioactive Elements

1190

(1)

52.9.1 Actinium

1190

(1)

52.9.2 Radon

1190

(2)

52.10 The Periodic Table Becomes Complete

1192

(1)

52.10.1 Number 91, Protactinium - Discovered in 1913-1918

1192

(1)

52.10.2 Number 87, Francium - Discovered in 1939

1193

(1)

52.10.3 Number 85, Astatine - Discovered in 1940

1193

(1)

52.10.4 A Complete Periodic Table

1194

(1)

52.11 Thorium as a Technological Metal

1195

(1)

52.11.1 Occurrence

1195

(1)

52.11.2 Manufacture

1195

(1)

52.11.3 Uses

1195

(1)

52.12 Uranium as a Technological Metal

1196

(1)

52.12.1 Occurrence

1196

(1)

52.12.2 Production

1197

(1)

52.12.3 Manufacture of Uranium Metal and Isotope Separation

1198

(1)

52.13 Nuclear Fission

1199

(1)

52.14 The Nuclear Reactor

1200

(1)

52.14.1 With Enriched Uranium as the Fuel

1200

(2)

52.14.2 Breeder Reactors

1202

(1)

52.15 Oklo - Nature's Own Reactor

1202

(1)

52.16 More Than Just 92 Elements - The Transuranium Actinides

1203

(1)

52.16.1 The Situation in 1940

1203

(1)

52.16.2 Synthesis and Discovery

1203

(4)

52.16.3 Uses of the Transuranium Actinides

1207

(1)

52.16.4 Physical Properties

1208

(1)

52.17 The Elements After the Actinides - The Transactinides

1208

(1)

52.17.1 The Situation at the Beginning of the 1960's

1208

(1)

52.17.2 New Discoveries

1209

(1)

52.17.3 Notes About the Elements

1210

(2)

52.17.4 An Island of Stability

1212

(1)

52.17.5 The Properties of the Transactinides

1213

(1)

52.17.6 Naming of the Elements - a Continuous Cause of Dispute and Controversy

1213

(2)

Index

1215

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Encyclopedia of the Elements Technical Data - History - Processing - Applications

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