Endocrinology

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ISBN: 9780131876064 | 0131876066
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 10/24/2006

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This revision of the classic textbook in endocrinology will offer all of the advantages found in earlier editions of Hadley's "Endocrinology," including clear explanations, interesting applications, and in-depth coverage of vertebrate hormones. In addition, chapters are now presented in a lecture-friendly format, with headers summarizing each of the major concepts. As in earlier editions, basic principles of molecular, cellular, and integrative endocrinology are presented early, along with an updated guide to current research and methodologies. Following chapters contain discussions of each of the major endocrine systems, supplemented with the most important and interesting new information. Neuroendocrine and reproductive systems are the specialty of the new co-author of this edition, and corresponding chapters have been appropriately increased in coverage. Special features of this new edition include... 1. Expanded explanations of basic concepts 2. Updated information on research methodologies 3. Latest research findings added to chapters on each endocrine system 4. Additonal diagrams and figures 5. Printed with second color scheme. 6. New "Think, Analyze, and Discuss" review questions For health professionals, veterinarians, pharmacologists, and anyone in a field where endocrinology is the focus.

Preface

Introduction to Endocrinology

(16)

Endocrine Systems

(1)

Historical Perspective

(5)

The Science of Endocrinology Progressed from Simple Observations to Complex Experimentation

(1)

Berthold's Experiments in Roosters Lead to the Discovery of Testosterone

(1)

Secretin is Discovered by Bayliss and Starling

(1)

Insulin is Determined to be a Pancreatic Hormone that Regulates Blood Glucose

(1)

The Nervous System is Shown to Release Neurotransmitters

(1)

Sutherland and Colleagues Discover Cyclic AMP

(1)

Discovery of Hypothalamic Releasing Factors Starts a ``Race to Stockholm''

(1)

Development of Immunoassays Permits Hormone Measurements at Physiological Concentrations

(1)

Boundaries of Endocrinology are Broadened with the Discovery of Growth Factors

(1)

Advances in Molecular Biology and Genetics Spawn a New Era in Endocrine Research

(1)

The Science of Endocrinology

(1)

The Importance of Comparative Endocrinology is Multidimensional

(1)

Clinical Endocrinologists Address a Multitude of Important Health Issues

(1)

The Concept of Homeostasis

(2)

Homeostatic Systems Use Negative Feedback Control Mechanisms

(1)

Hormones and Homeostasis

(2)

Example 1: Glucose Homeostasis is Controlled by Glucagon and Insulin

(1)

Example 2: Calcium Homeostasis is Controlled by Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin

(1)

Example 3: Sodium Homeostasis is Controlled by the Renin-Angiotensin System and Atriopeptin

(1)

Neuroendocrine Integration in Homeostasis

(1)

Example 1: Neuroendocrine Regulation of Fluid Homeostasis is Mediated by Vasopressin

(1)

Example 2: Neuroendocrine Control of Body Temperature is Regulated by Thyroid Hormones and Autonomic Activity

(1)

Example 3: Neuroendocrine Control of Energy Homeostasis is Mediated by Neuropeptides and Peripheral Feedback Signals

(1)

Hormones and Behavior

(1)

Gonadal Hormones Regulate Reproductive Behaviors

(1)

Fetal Hormones can ``Program'' Behavior

(1)

Hormones, Growth Regulation, and Cancer

(1)

Review Exercises

(1)

References

(2)

The Vertebrate Endocrine System

(22)

Endocrine Glands and their Hormones

(1)

Hormones Defined

(4)

General Classes of Chemical Messengers

(5)

Protein Hormones Comprise the Most Diverse Family of Chemical Messengers

(1)

The Thyroid Gland Produces Iodine-Containing Hormones, Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine (T3)

(1)

Steroid Hormones are Produced Primarily by the Adrenal Cortex and Gonads

(1)

Many Neurotransmitters are Enzymatically Modified Amino Acids

(1)

Neuropeptides can Function as Neurohormones, Neurotransmitters, and Neuromodulators

(1)

Growth Factors are a Diverse Group of Locally Acting Peptide Messengers

(1)

Eicosanoids are Fatty Acid Derivatives that Include Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, and Leukotrienes

(1)

Pheromones are a Diverse Group of Chemical Messengers that Mediate Signaling between Individuals

(1)

Electrolytes and Metabolites can also Convey Physiological Signals

(1)

Hormone Synthesis

(2)

Protein Hormone Synthesis Involves DNA Transcription, mRNA Translation, and Prohormone Processing

(1)

Steroid Hormones are Derived from Cholesterol

(1)

Thyroid Hormone Synthesis Requires a Unique Series of Biochemical Processes in Follicular Cells

(1)

Non-Peptide Neurotransmitters are Synthesized in Nerve Endings

(1)

Gases can Function as Chemical Messengers

(1)

Peptide Neurohormones and Neurotransmitters are Synthesized in the Same Manner as Protein Hormones

(1)

Some Peptide and Steroid Hormones are Derived from Prohormones after Secretion

(1)

Control of Hormone Secretion

(2)

Hormone Secretion can be a Regulated or Constitutive Process

(1)

Secretion of One Hormone is Often Controlled by the Actions of Another

(1)

Secretions of Some Hormones are Controlled by the Ionic, Metabolic or Hormonal Factors they Regulate

(1)

Hormone Delivery

(1)

Hormone Circulation and Metabolism

(2)

Peptide Hormones Have Short Half-Lives in the Circulation

(1)

Steroid and Thyroid Hormone are Bound by Globulins that Increase their Half-Lives

(1)

Adrenal Catecholamines and Neurotransmitters are Enzymatically Inactivated in liver and Brain, Respectively

(1)

Physiological Roles of Hormones

(1)

General Mechanisms of Hormone Action

(1)

Endocrine Pathophysiology

(1)

Comparative Endocrinology

(1)

Review Exercises

(1)

References

(2)

General Mechanisms of Hormone Action

(28)

Cellular Receptors and Hormone Action

(3)

Hormone Receptors Bind Specific Hormones

(1)

Tissue Responses to a Hormone are Determined by the Presence of Specific Receptors

(1)

Some Hormones can Activate Multiple Receptor Isoforms

(1)

Characteristics of Physiological Receptors

(3)

Binding assays are Used to Determine the Number, Affinity, and Ligand Specificity of Hormone Receptors

(3)

Plasma Membrane Hormone Receptors

(1)

Membrane Receptor Families have Characteristic Structures and Functional Properties

(1)

Second Messengers of Hormone Action

(3)

Cyclic Nucleotides Function as Second Messengers in the Actions of Many Hormones

(3)

Cyclic AMP also Initiates Signaling to the Genome

(1)

Membrane Receptor Signal Transduction

(2)

Proteins Mediate Dual Control of Adenylate Cyclase

(1)

``Crosstalk'' may Occur among Different Signal Transduction Pathways

(1)

Phosphorylated Proteins as Physiological Effectors

(1)

Protein Phosphatases also Play Important Roles in Cellular Regulation

(1)

Multiple Membrane Messengers

(1)

G Proteins also Couple Receptor Stimulation to Phosphoinositol Hydrolysis

(1)

Protein Kinase C is a Multifunctional Enzyme that Plays Important Roles in Signal Transduction

(1)

Eicosanoids and Hormone Action

(4)

Nuclear Hormone Receptors

(2)

Steroid/Thyroid Hormone Receptors

(2)

Direct Membrane Actions of Steroid Hormone

(1)

Permissive, Additive, and Synergistic Actions of Hormones

(2)

Receptor Regulation

(1)

Hormones can Regulate Receptor Number

(1)

Receptor cooperativity Can Modulate Responses to Hormones

(1)

``Spare Receptors'' are Commonly Present in Hormone-Responsive Cells

(1)

Termination of Hormone Action

(1)

Pathophysiological Correlates of Hormone Action

(2)

Review Exercises

(1)

References

(2)

Endocrine Methodologies

(26)

General Considerations

(2)

What Do Endocrinologists Want to Know about a Hormone?

(1)

Surgical Methods

(1)

Hormone Replacement Therapy

(1)

Immunological Neutralization of Hormone Activity

(1)

Tissue Extracts and Purification

(1)

Chemical Identification and Synthesis

(1)

Histological-Cytological Studies

(3)

Immunohistochemistry can be Used to Visualize the Expression Pattern of a Hormone or Receptor

(2)

Assay Methodologies

(3)

Bioassays Measure Levels of a Hormone on the Basis of its Biological Activity

(1)

Bioassays can be Used in Conjunction with Structure--Activity Analyses

(1)

Bioassays are Used with Site-Directed Mutagenesis to Analyze Functional Domains of Hormone Receptors

(1)

Radioimmunoassays Measure Levels of a Hormone on the Basis of its Antigenic Properties

(1)

Non-Radioisotopic Immunoassays are Now Widely Used by Endocrine Researchers and Clinicians

(1)

Analysis of Hormone Actions

(2)

Radioisotopes can be Used to Assay Cellular Responses to a Hormone

(1)

Radioligand Binding Assays Assess Physiological Regulation of Hormone Receptor Number or Affinity

(1)

Immunoblots Permit Analysis of Specific Proteins in Hormone-Responsive Cells

(1)

Some Cellular Responses to Hormones can be Assessed by Enzyme Assays

(1)

Autoradiographic Techniques Determine the Cellular Site of Radiolabeled Substrate Incorporation

(1)

Analysis of Gene Expression in Endocrine Systems

(4)

Steady-State mRNA levels are Analyzed as a Measure of Gene Expression

(2)

Tissue-and Cell-Specific mRNA Expression Patterns are Analyzed by In Situ Hybridization

(1)

Hormone Effects on Gene Expression can be Profiled using DNA Microarrays

(1)

Transcriptional Regulation can be Studied using Reporter Gene Constructs

(1)

Electrophysiological Methods

(1)

Pharmacological Methods

(1)

Behavioral Methods

(1)

Recombinant DNA Techniques

(1)

Genetic Engineering

(2)

Animal Models for Research

(1)

Cyclostomes

(1)

Cartilaginous Fishes

(1)

Bony Fishes

(1)

Amphibians

(1)

Reptiles

(1)

Birds

(1)

Nonprimate Mammals

(1)

Primates

(1)

Animal Welfare

(1)

Perspectives

(1)

Review Exercises

(1)

References

(2)

Pituitary Hormones

(18)

Anatomy of the Pituitary Gland

(4)

The Adenohypophysis and Neurohypophysis have Separate Embryonic Origins

(2)

Lobation, vascularization, and Innervation of the Pituitary can Differ among Species

(1)

Cytological Methods Distinguish Different Pituitary Cell Types

(1)

Hormones of the Pituitary

(8)

Pituitary Hormones can be Grouped into Families of Structurally Related Proteins

(1)

Growth Hormone and Prolactin are Structurally Related Hormones that Stimulate Growth and Development

(4)

Luteinizing Hormone, Follicle-Stimulating Hormone, and Thyrotropin are Glycoprotein Hormones

102

(2)

Corticotropin and Melanotropins are Hormones Derived from a Common Precursor, Proopiomelanocortin

104

(2)

Vasopressin and Oxytocin are the Major Neurohypophysial Hormones

106

(1)

Pituitary Pathophysiology

106

(2)

Molecular Medicine Case Studies

108

(1)

Review Exercises

108

(1)

References

109

(2)

The Endocrine Hypothalamus

111

(23)

The Neurovascular Hypothesis

111

(1)

Structure-Function of the Endocrine Hypothalamus

112

(2)

The Hypophysiotropic Hormones

114

(7)

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) Stimulates Synthesis and Secretion of TSH

115

(1)

Somatostatin (SST) Inhibits GH Secretion from Somatotrophs

116

(1)

GH-Releasing Hormone and Ghrelin Stimulate GH Secretion

117

(1)

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Stimulates LH and FSH Secretion from Gonadotrophs

117

(2)

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) Stimulates ACTH Secretion from Corticotrophs

119

(1)

Dopamine is a Major Prolactin-Release-Inhibiting Factor (PIF)

120

(1)

A Physiological Prolactin-Releasing Factor (PRF) has yet to be Demonstrated

120

(1)

Dopamine May Function as an MSH Release-Inhibiting Factor (MIF)

120

(1)

Control of Hypothalamic/Hypophysial Hormone Secretion

121

(6)

Neurohormone Secretions are Governed by Central Neurons and their Neurotransmitters

121

(1)

Specific Neurotransmitters Regulate Hypophysiotropin Secretions

122

(1)

Peripheral Hormones Exert Feedback Actions in the Hypothalamus

123

(3)

Hypophysiotropic Hormones are Usually Secreted in a Rhythmic Pattern

126

(1)

Neuropharmacological Agents are Used to Probe the Neural Regulation of Hypophysiotropin Release

126

(1)

Mechanisms of Hypophysiotropin Action

127

(1)

Steroid and Thyroid Hormones can Directly Modulate Pituitary Hormone Secretion

128

(1)

Pathophysiology of Hypothalamic Dysfunction

128

(2)

Molecular Medicine Case Study

130

(1)

Conclusions and Speculations

130

(1)

Review Exercises

131

(1)

References

132

(2)

Neurohypophysial Hormones

134

(23)

The Neurohypophysis

134

(1)

Synthesis and Chemistry

135

(3)

Control of Neurohypophysial Hormone Secretion

138

(1)

Physiological Roles

138

(9)

Oxytocin Controls Milk Release and Uterine Contractions

139

(4)

Vasopressin (AVP) Mediates Osmoregulation and Blood Pressure Responses

143

(3)

Vasotocin (AVT) is a Major Nonapeptide Hormone in Nonmammalian Vertebrates

146

(1)

Circulation and Metabolism

147

(1)

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

147

(3)

Pathophysiology

150

(2)

Evolution of the Neurohypophysial Hormones

152

(2)

Other Neurohypophysial Hormones

152

(2)

Molecular Medicine Case Studies

154

(1)

Review Exercises

154

(1)

References

155

(2)

Opiomelanocortins

157

(25)

Proopiomelanocortin (POMC): A Multifunctional Precursor

157

(2)

The Pars Intermedia: A Source of Melanotropins

159

(1)

Control of MSH Secretion

159

(4)

Physiological Roles of MSH

163

(4)

MSH Regulates Melanin Pigmentation of the Skin

163

(2)

Melanocortin Receptors Regulate Animal Pigmentation

165

(2)

MSH Directs Color Changes in Nonmammalian Vertebrates

167

(1)

Other Roles of Melanocortins

167

(2)

Mechanism of MSH Action

169

(3)

Analogs of Melanotropins are Analyzed in Structure--Function Studies

171

(1)

Melanin-Concentrating Hormone

172

(2)

Pathophysiologies Involving Melanotropic Hormones can Accompany other Endocrinopathies

174

(1)

Biomedical Applications of Melanocortins are in Development

174

(1)

The Endorphins

174

(5)

Endogenous Opioid Peptides are Derived from POMC, Proenkephalin, and Prodynorphin

175

(1)

The Physiological Roles of Opioid Peptides are Remarkably Diverse

176

(1)

Opioid Peptides Modulate Neuronal Activity through the δμ, and κ Classes of Opioid Receptors

177

(1)

Opioid Peptide Systems are Involved in the Pathophysiology of Drug Addiction

178

(1)

Review Exercises

179

(1)

References

179

(3)

Hormonal Control of Calcium Homeostasis

182

(29)

Calcium and Bone Physiology

182

(1)

Parathormone

183

(3)

The ``Chief Cells'' of the Parathyroid Glands Secrete Parathormone

183

(2)

Parathormone Acts to Raise Plasma Ca2+ Levels

185

(1)

Parathormone-Related Peptide (PTHrP)

186

(1)

Calcitonin

187

(2)

The Parafollicular Cells of the Thyroid Secrete Calcitonin

187

(1)

Calcitonin Acts to Lower Plasma Ca2+ Levels

188

(1)

Vitamin D

189

(5)

Vitamin D is Produced by a Pathway that Involves the Skin, Liver, and Kidneys

189

(4)

Vitamin D Promotes Ca2+ Absorption in the Gut and Ca2+ Reabsorption in the Kidney

193

(1)

Hormone Mechanisms of Action in Calcium Homeostasis

194

(2)

Parathormone, Calcitonin, and Vitamin D Activate their Cognate Receptors in Multiple Tissues

194

(2)

Hormone Integration in Calcium Homeostasis

196

(2)

Hormonal Regulation of Intracellular Calcium

198

(3)

Calmodulin is an Intracellular Calcium Receptor

199

(2)

Pathophysiology

201

(6)

Hypoparathyroidism Results in Hypocalcemia

201

(1)

Hyperparathyroidism Results in Hypercalcemia

202

(1)

Hypercalcemia can Accompany Some Malignancies

203

(1)

Osteomalacia is a Condition of Inadequate Bone Mineralization

204

(1)

Paget's Disease is Characterized by Excess Osteoclastic Activity

204

(1)

Osteoporosis is a Condition of Decreased Bone Mineral Density

205

(2)

New Pharmacological Therapies for Diseases of Ca2+ Homeostasis are Available

207

(1)

Molecular Medicine Case Studies

207

(1)

Review Exercises

208

(1)

References

209

(2)

Gastrointestinal Hormones

211

(26)

Gastrointestinal Tract Structure and Function

211

(1)

Source and Chemistry of the Gastrointestinal Hormones

212

(3)

Gastrin Hormone Family Members Contain a Biologically Active C-Terminal Pentapeptide Sequence

213

(1)

Secretin Shares Partial Sequence Identity with Glucagon, GIP, and VIP

214

(1)

The GI Tract Produces other Biologically Active Peptides that are Putative Hormones

215

(1)

Physiological Roles of the Gastrointestinal Hormones

215

(11)

Gastrin Stimulates Acid Secretion in the Stomach

215

(2)

Secretion Stimulates Pancreatic Bicarbonate and Enzyme Secretions

217

(1)

Cholecystokinin (CCK) Stimulates Gallbladder Contraction and Pancreatic Enzyme Secretions

218

(1)

Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) Inhibits Gastric Emptying and Gastric Acid Secretion

219

(1)

Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Stimulates Insulin Secretion and Inhibits Glucagon Secretion

220

(1)

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) Inhibits Gastric Acid Secretion and Stimulates Pancreatic Electrolyte and Water Secretion

220

(1)

Neurotensin Stimulates Pancreatic Secretion and Inhibits Gastric Motility

221

(1)

Peptide YY Inhibits Pancreatic Bicarbonate Secretion, Gallbladder Contraction, and Gastric Emptying

221

(1)

Substance P (SP) May Serve as a Physiological Modulator of Intestinal Smooth Muscle Contractility

222

(1)

Somatostatin Inhibits Gastrin and Hydrochloric Acid Release

222

(1)

Gastrin-Releasing Peptide (GRP) Stimulates Release of Several GI Hormones, Pancreatic Secretion, and Motility

223

(1)

Motilin Stimulates GI Motility and Emplying of Chyme into the Small Intestine

224

(1)

Ghrelin is a Multifunctional Peptide that Stimulates Gastric Acid Secretion and Gastric Motility

224

(1)

Other Putative Gut Hormones Exert Specific Actions in the GI Tract

224

(2)

Autonomic Nervous System Control of GI Function

226

(1)

Gastrointestinal Hormone Mechanisms of Action

227

(1)

Integrated Actions of Gastrin, Acetylcholine and Histamine Control Gastric Acid Secretion

227

(1)

Synergistic Actions of Secretin and CCK Control Exocrine Pancreatic Secretion

227

(1)

The GI hormones can also Exert Trophic Actions

228

(1)

Summary of the Neuroendocrine Control of GI Function

228

(1)

Pathophysiology

229

(2)

Evolutionary Relationships of the Gut hormones

231

(3)

Perspectives

234

(1)

Review Exercises

234

(1)

References

235

(2)

Pancreatic Hormones and Metabolic Regulation

237

(27)

The Endocrine Pancreas

237

(2)

Intermediary Metabolism

239

(2)

Insulin

241

(6)

Insulin Consists of Two Polypeptide Chains Derived from a Single Preprohormone

241

(2)

Insulin Regulates Carbohydrate, Fat, and Protein Metabolism in Many Target Tissues

243

(1)

Insulin's Actions are Mediated by a Receptor Tyrosine Kinase

243

(4)

Glucagon

247

(2)

Glucagon is Structurally Related to Secretin, GIP, and VIP

247

(1)

Glucagon Stimulates Glycogenolysis, Gluconeogenesis, and Lipolysis

248

(1)

Glucagon Activates Receptors Coupled to cAMP Formation in Hepatocytes and Adipocytes

248

(1)

Other Pancreatic Peptide Hormones

249

(1)

Somatostatin (SST) is Secreted by Pancreatic D Cells

249

(1)

Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP) is Secreted by Pancreatic F Cells

250

(1)

Adipocytokines

250

(2)

Leptin is an Adiposity Signal that Suppresses Food Intake

251

(1)

Adiponectin is an Endogenous Insulin-Sensitizing Factor

251

(1)

Resistin can Induce Hepatic Insulin Resistance

251

(1)

Control of Pancreatic Islet Function

252

(3)

Glucose Counterregulation is Mediated by Several Different Hormones

254

(1)

Neuroendocrine Regulation of Food Intake and Body Weight

255

(1)

Pancreatic Islet Pathophysiology

255

(7)

Insulin-Dependent and Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus Have Different Etiologies

256

(3)

Obesity can Cause Insulin Resistance and Dysregulation of Insulin Secretion, Leading to NIDDM

259

(1)

Malignancies of Pancreatic Islet Cells can Cause Profound Metabolic Disturbances

260

(1)

Improved Insulin Replacement Therapies are Being Explored

261

(1)

Review Exercises

262

(1)

References

262

(2)

Growth Hormones

264

(29)

Growth and Cellular Proliferation

264

(1)

Growth Hormone and the Somatomedins

265

(8)

Insulin

273

(1)

Prolactin

274

(1)

Placental Lactogen

274

(1)

Neurotropic Growth Factors

275

(4)

NGF Promotes Survival of Peripheral Sympathetic and Spinal Neurons During Development

275

(2)

NGF is one Member of a Family of Neurotropins

277

(1)

Apoptosis can be Triggered by Some Growth Factors and Hormones

278

(1)

Hematopoietic Growth Factors

279

(5)

Erythropoietin Enhances the Formation of New Red Blood Cells

279

(3)

Thymic Hormones Stimulate Maturation of T Lymphocytes

282

(2)

Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF) Acts Locally on Injured Blood Vessels

284

(1)

Other Peptide Growth Factors

284

(5)

Epidermal Growth Factor Stimulates Proliferation and Keratinization of Epidermal Tissue

284

(2)

Tumor-Derived Growth Factors also Play Important Roles in Normal Development

286

(3)

Cytokines can have Both Immunological and Physiological Functions

289

(1)

Chalones are Mitotic Inhibitors

289

(1)

Growth Factors, Receptors, and Cancer

289

(1)

Review Exercises

290

(1)

References

291

(2)

Thyroid Hormones

293

(22)

The Thyroid Gland

293

(2)

Synthesis and Chemistry

295

(3)

Thyrotropin Induces Expression and Activation of Proteins Controlling Thyroid Hormone Synthesis

295

(2)

Antithyroid Drugs can Suppress Thyroid Hormone Synthesis

297

(1)

Thyroid Hormones or Thyroid Hormone?

298

(1)

Other Iodothyronines in Biological Fluids

298

(1)

Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

299

(1)

Circulation and Metabolism

299

(1)

Physiological Roles

300

(2)

Thyroid Hormones are Required for Normal Growth and Development

300

(1)

Thyroid Hormones Stimulate Thermogenesis and Oxygen Consumption

301

(1)

Diet can Alter Thyroid Hormone Production and Function

301

(1)

Many Actions of Thyroid Hormones are ``Permissive''

302

(1)

Mechanisms of Action

302

(2)

Pathophysiology

304

(4)

Molecular Medicine Case Studies

308

(2)

Comparative Endocrinology

310

(2)

Thyroid Hormones Play Additional Roles in Other Vertebrates

312

(1)

Review Exercises

312

(1)

References

313

(2)

Catecholamines and the Sympathoadrenal System

315

(22)

Historical Perspective

315

(1)

The Sympathoadrenal System

316

(4)

The Autonomic Nervous System Includes Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divsions

317

(1)

The Adrenal Medulla is Comprised of Chromaffin Tissue

317

(2)

Adrenal Chomaffin Cell Development Depends on Both Genetic Programming and Environmental Cues

319

(1)

Synthesis, Chemistry, and Metabolism of Catecholamines

320

(2)

Sympathoadrenal System Receptors

322

(3)

Nicotinic and Muscarinic Cholinergic Receptors are Pharmacologically and Structurally Distinct

322

(1)

Adrenergic Receptors (Adrenoceptors) Mediate the Actions of Norepinephrine and Epinephrine

323

(2)

Adrenoceptor Structure

325

(1)

Adrenoceptor Signal Transduction

326

(2)

Hormonal Modulation of Adrenoceptors

328

(1)

Sympathoadrenal Functions

329

(3)

Catecholamines Regulate Intermediary Metabolism

330

(1)

The Sympathetic Nervous System Regulates Thermogenesis

331

(1)

Adrenergic Receptors Mediate Cardiovascular Responses to Stress

331

(1)

β-Adrenergic Receptors Mediate Dilation of Bronchial Passageways

332

(1)

Sympathoadrenal, Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal, and Parasympathetic Stress Responses are Integrated

332

(1)

Norepinephrine may Function as Both Neurotransmitter and Hormone in Humans

332

(1)

Sympathoadrenal Pathophysiology

332

(1)

Comparative Endocrinology

333

(1)

Review Exercises

334

(1)

References

335

(2)

Adrenal Steroid Hormones

337

(29)

Historical Perspective

337

(1)

The Adrenal Glands

338

(2)

Adrenomedullary and Adrenocortical Tissues have Separate Embryological Origins

338

(1)

Histology

339

(1)

The Fetal Adrenal Cortex Regresses Towards the End of Gestation

340

(1)

Chemistry and Synthesis

340

(4)

The Adrenal Cortex is Composed of Three Separate Functional Zones

344

(1)

Control of Synthesis and Secretion

344

(6)

Pituitary ACTH Regulates the Synthesis and Secretion of Glucocorticoids

344

(1)

Aldosterone Synthesis and Secretion is Regulated by the Renin-Angiotensin System

345

(2)

A Renal Kallikrein--Kinin System Activates Vasoactive Peptides

347

(1)

An Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) Inhibits Renal Tubular Reabsorption

348

(2)

Circulation and Metabolism

350

(1)

Physiological Roles

351

(4)

Glucocorticoids Regulate Key Physiological Processes in Response to Prolonged Stress

351

(3)

Aldosterone Stimulates Sodium Reabsorption in Renal Tubules

354

(1)

Physiological Roles of Adrenal Androgens have yet to be Clarified

355

(1)

Mechanisms of Action

355

(2)

Glucocorticoids Exert Actions Through Intracellular Glucocorticoid Receptors

355

(1)

Aldosterone's Actions are Mediated by Intracellular Mineralocorticoid Receptors

356

(1)

Angiotensin II Actions are Mediated by Cognate G-Protein-Coupled Receptors, AT1 and AT2

357

(1)

Pathophysiology

357

(6)

Disorders of Cortisol Secretion Include Syndromes of Cortisol Deficiency and Excess

357

(3)

Disorders of Aldosterone Secretion Include Syndromes of Aldosterone Excess or Deficiency

360

(1)

Disorders of Steroid Secretion can be Caused by Genetic Mutations Producing Adrenal Enzyme Defects

361

(1)

Defects in LDL Receptor Function are Linked to Development of Atherosclerosis

362

(1)

Adrenal Steroid Hormone Pharmacology

363

(1)

Review Excercises

364

(1)

References

364

(2)

Endocrinology of Sex Differentiation and Development

366

(21)

Sex Determination, Differentiation, and Development

366

(4)

Sex Chromosomes Define Genetic Sex

366

(1)

Gonadal Sex is Determined by SRY Gene Expression in the Male, and its Absence in the Female

367

(2)

Phenotypric Sex of the Genital Ducts Depends on the Presence or Absence of AMH and Androgens

369

(1)

Phenotypic Sex of the External Genitalia Depends on the Presence or Absence of Androgens

370

(1)

Gonadal Steroid Hormone Synthesis and Chemistry

370

(3)

Gonadal Steroids and Brain Differentiation

373

(5)

Organizational Effects of Androgens Mediate Male-Type Brain Development

373

(2)

Activational Effects of Gonadal Steroids Evoke Acute Neuroendocrine and Behavioral Responses

375

(3)

Puberty

378

(2)

Precocious and Delayed Puberty can have Constitutional or Pathophysiological Origins

378

(1)

Pubertal Development is Driven by an Activation of the Hypothalamic ``GnRH Pulse Generator''

379

(1)

Pathophysiology of Sex Differentiation and Development

380

(4)

Gonadal Dysgenesis is a Failure of Normal Gonadal Differentiation

381

(1)

Pseudohermaphroditism can Result from Defects in Fetal Steroid Synthesis or End-Organ Resistance

381

(1)

Hypogonadism and Hypergonadism can have Gonadal, Pituitary, or Hypothalamic Bases

382

(2)

Molecular Medicine Case Study

384

(1)

Review Exercises

384

(1)

References

385

(2)

Hormones and Male Reproductive Physiology

387

(21)

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

387

(1)

The Major Functions of the Testes are Spermatogenesis and Steroidogenesis

388

(1)

Source, Synthesis, Chemistry, and Metabolism of Androgens

388

(1)

Endocrine Control of Testicular Function

389

(3)

Male Reproductive Function is Maintained by a ``Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Testicular Axis'' of Hormones

389

(1)

Inhibin Exerts Negative Feedback Actions on Pituitary FSH Secretion

390

(1)

Prolactin can Regulate LH Receptor Number in Leydig Cells

391

(1)

Physiological Roles of Androgens

392

(6)

Spermatogenesis Depends on Both FSH and Testosterone

392

(1)

Testosterone Acts at Several Neural Loci to Modulate Reproductive Behavior and Sexual Function

393

(1)

Hormone Actions in the Fetal Brain may Program Sexual Orientation

394

(1)

Testosterone Stimulates Development of Male Secondary Sex Characteristics

395

(2)

Androgens Exert Anabolic Actions in Muscle, Cartilage and other Target Tissues

397

(1)

Serum Testosterone Levels Decline in Aging Men

397

(1)

Physiological Roles of Estrogens

398

(1)

Mechanisms of Androgen Action

398

(2)

Pathophysiology

400

(4)

Molecular Medicine Case Study

404

(1)

Review Exercises

405

(1)

References

405

(3)

Hormones and Female Reproductive Physiology

408

(28)

Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System

408

(5)

The Major Physiological Activities of the Ovary are Hormonogenesis and Gametogenesis

409

(4)

Fallopian Tubes Convey Ova Towards the Uterus

413

(1)

The Uterus is the Site of Implantation of a Fertilized Egg and Fetal Development

413

(1)

Ovarian Steroid Hormones

413

(3)

Estrogen Biosynthesis Requires Androgen Production in Thecal Cells and Aromatization in Granulosa Cells

413

(1)

Progesterone Biosynthesis Occurs Primarily in Luteal Cells

414

(1)

Androgens May Support some Aspects of Female Pubertal Maturation

415

(1)

Paracrine-Acting Growth Factors Regulate Ovarian Function

415

(1)

Physiological Roles of Ovarian Steroid Hormones

416

(1)

Mechanisms of Action of Ovarian Steroid Hormones

417

(1)

Two Estrogen Receptor Isoforms (ERα, ERβ) Mediate Genomic Actions of Estrogen

417

(1)

Progesterone's Genomic Actions are Mediated by Progesterone Receptors A and B (PRA, PRB)

418

(1)

Neuroendocrine Control of Ovarian Function

418

(5)

A Neural ``GnRH Pulse Generator'' Directs Pituitary Gonadotropin Secretion

420

(1)

Menstrual Cyclicity is Maintained by Ovarian Feedback Mechanisms

421

(1)

Intrafollicular Polypeptides Regulate Folliculogenesis and Oocyte Maturation

422

(1)

Mammalian Reproductive Cycles

423

(6)

The Primate Menstrual Cycle is Orchestrated by Cyclic Secretions of Pituitary and Gonadal Hormones

423

(3)

Females of Various Animal Species may be Induced or Spontaneous Ovulators

426

(1)

Delayed Implantation is an Adaptive Mechanism that Permits Optimal Timing of Birth

426

(1)

Environmental Cues can Regulate the Timing of Reproduction

427

(2)

Pathophysiology

429

(2)

Molecular Medicine Case Studies

431

(1)

Review Exercises

432

(1)

References

433

(3)

Endocrinology of Pregnancy, Parturition, and Lactation

436

(19)

Oviparity, Ovoviparity, and Viviparity

436

(1)

Pregnancy

436

(4)

Fertilization of the Egg and Implantation of the Blastocyst Initiates Development of the Fetal-Placental Unit

436

(1)

hCG Rescues the Corpus Luteum

437

(1)

The Placenta Assumes the Role of an Endocrine Organ

438

(2)

Parturition

440

(4)

Neural and Endocrine Mechanisms Control of Parturition

440

(3)

A Mechanistic Understanding of Labor Initiation in Humans Remains Elusive

443

(1)

Lactation

444

(3)

Hormonal Contraception

447

(2)

Menopause

449

(2)

Pathophysiology

451

(1)

Review Exercises

452

(1)

References

453

(2)

Endocrine Role of the Pineal Gland

455

(19)

Pineal Development and Morphology

455

(1)

The Melatonin Hypothesis

456

(3)

Early Observations Suggested that the Pineal can Influence Reproductive Function

456

(1)

Studies in Hamsters have Provided Important Information on Pineal Function

457

(2)

Pineal Indoleamine Biosynthesis

459

(3)

The Rhythm of Melatonin Production is Affected by Light

459

(1)

The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Controls Pineal Melatonin Release through a Multi-Synaptic Pathway

460

(1)

Norepinephrine Regulates Melatonin Biosynthesis via β1-Adrenergic Receptors

461

(1)

Melatonin Secretion and Circulation

462

(1)

Site of Action of Melatonin

462

(2)

Pineal Rhythms and Biological Clocks

464

(2)

Pathophysiology

466

(1)

Melatonin Effects on Humans

467

(1)

Other Proposed Roles of the Pineal

468

(2)

The Pineal Gland in Birds is Directly Light-Sensitive

469

(1)

The Pineal Glands of Poikilotherms are also Photosensitive

469

(1)

The Pineal Gland and Melatonin Release Control Chromatophores in Poikilothermic Vertebrates

470

(1)

Melatonin Mechanisms of Action

470

(1)

Review Exercises

471

(1)

References

472

(2)

Answers to Review Exercises

474

(9)

Bibliography

483

(3)

Index

486

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Endocrinology

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials