- ISBN: 9780023728402 | 002372840X
- Cover: Paperback
- Copyright: 10/1/1994
Preface | p. xii |
An Introduction to Geology | p. 1 |
The Science of Geology | p. 2 |
Historical Notes about Geology | p. 2 |
Catastrophism | p. 3 |
The Birth of Modern Geology | p. 3 |
Geologic Time | p. 5 |
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry | p. 7 |
Hypothesis | p. 7 |
Theory | p. 7 |
Scientific Methods | p. 8 |
A View of Earth | p. 8 |
Hydrosphere | p. 10 |
Atmosphere | p. 11 |
The Solid Earth | p. 11 |
Biosphere | p. 12 |
Dynamic Earth | p. 12 |
Plate Tectonics | p. 12 |
Plate Boundaries | p. 13 |
Earth as a System: The Rock Cycle | p. 16 |
The Basic Cycle | p. 16 |
Alternative Paths | p. 16 |
The Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics | p. 19 |
Box 1.1 Earth as a System | p. 18 |
Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks | p. 22 |
Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks | p. 23 |
The Composition and Structure of Minerals | p. 23 |
Atomic Structure | p. 24 |
How Atoms Bond Together | p. 25 |
Isotopes and Radioactive Decay | p. 28 |
Properties of Minerals | p. 28 |
Crystal Form | p. 28 |
Luster | p. 29 |
Color | p. 29 |
Streak | p. 29 |
Hardness | p. 29 |
Cleavage | p. 30 |
Fracture | p. 30 |
Specific Gravity | p. 30 |
Other Properties of Minerals | p. 31 |
Mineral Groups | p. 31 |
The Silicates | p. 32 |
Common Silicate Minerals | p. 34 |
Important Nonsilicate Minerals | p. 37 |
Mineral Resources | p. 38 |
Asbestos: What Are the Risks | p. 40 |
Igneous Rocks | p. 43 |
Crystallization of Magma | p. 44 |
Igneous Textures | p. 45 |
Factors Affecting Crystal Size | p. 46 |
Types of Igneous Textures | p. 47 |
Igneous Compositions | p. 48 |
Bowen's Reaction Series | p. 49 |
Magmatic Differentiation | p. 51 |
Assimilation and Magma Mixing | p. 51 |
Naming Igneous Rocks | p. 52 |
Igneous Rock Types | p. 52 |
Felsic (Granitic) Rocks | p. 53 |
Intermediate (Andesitic) Rocks | p. 56 |
Mafic (Basaltic) Rocks | p. 57 |
Pyroclastic Rocks | p. 58 |
Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes | p. 58 |
Bingham Canyon, Utah | p. 60 |
Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity | p. 64 |
The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions | p. 65 |
Factors Affecting Viscosity | p. 65 |
Importance of Dissolved Gases | p. 67 |
Materials Extruded During an Eruption | p. 70 |
Lava Flows | p. 70 |
Gases | p. 70 |
Pyroclastic Materials | p. 71 |
Volcanoes and Volcanic Eruptions | p. 71 |
Shield Volcanoes | p. 71 |
Cinder Cones | p. 74 |
Composite Cones | p. 75 |
Nuee Ardente: A Deadly Pyroclastic Flow | p. 77 |
Lahar | p. 78 |
Other Volcanic Landforms | p. 78 |
Calderas and Pyroclastic Flows | p. 78 |
Fissure Eruptions and Lava Plateaus | p. 80 |
Volcanic Pipes and Necks | p. 81 |
Intrusive Igneous Activity | p. 82 |
Dikes | p. 82 |
Sills | p. 82 |
Laccoliths | p. 82 |
Batholiths | p. 83 |
Igneous Activity and Plate Tectonics | p. 85 |
Origin of Magma | p. 85 |
Partial Melting and Magma Compositions | p. 86 |
Distribution of Igneous Activity | p. 87 |
Mount St. Helens: Anatomy of an Eruption | p. 69 |
Volcano Sizes | p. 73 |
Volcanoes and Climate | p. 90 |
Weathering and Soils | p. 93 |
Earth's External Processes | p. 94 |
Weathering | p. 95 |
Mechanical Weathering | p. 95 |
Frost Wedging | p. 95 |
Unloading | p. 96 |
Biological Activity | p. 97 |
Chemical Weathering | p. 97 |
Water and Carbonic Acid | p. 97 |
How Granite Weathers | p. 97 |
Weathering of Silicate Minerals | p. 98 |
Spheroidal Weathering | p. 99 |
Rates of Weathering | p. 99 |
Mineral Makeup | p. 99 |
Climate | p. 100 |
Differential Weathering | p. 100 |
Soil | p. 100 |
An Interface in the Earth System | p. 101 |
What Is Soil? | p. 102 |
Controls of Soil Formation | p. 102 |
Parent Material | p. 102 |
Time | p. 103 |
Climate | p. 103 |
Plans and Animals | p. 103 |
Slope | p. 104 |
The Soil Profile | p. 104 |
Soil Types | p. 106 |
Pedalfer | p. 106 |
Pedocal | p. 106 |
Laterite | p. 107 |
Soil Erosion | p. 107 |
How Soil Is Eroded | p. 107 |
Rates of Erosion | p. 109 |
Sedimentation and Chemical Pollution | p. 110 |
Weathering Creates Ore Deposits | p. 110 |
Bauxite | p. 110 |
Other Deposits | p. 110 |
Laterites and the Clearing of the Rain Forest | p. 108 |
Sedimentary Rocks | p. 113 |
Types of Sedimentary Rocks | p. 115 |
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks | p. 115 |
Shale | p. 116 |
Sandstone | p. 117 |
Conglomerate and Breccia | p. 119 |
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks | p. 120 |
Limestone | p. 120 |
Dolostone | p. 122 |
Chert | p. 122 |
Evaporites | p. 122 |
Coal | p. 123 |
Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock | p. 123 |
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks | p. 124 |
Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments | p. 126 |
Sedimentary Structures | p. 126 |
Nonmetallic Mineral Resources From Sedimentary Rocks | p. 131 |
Energy Resources From Sedimentary Rocks | p. 132 |
Coal | p. 133 |
Oil and Natural Gas | p. 133 |
United States Per Capita Use of Mineral and Energy Resources | p. 132 |
Metamorphic Rocks | p. 137 |
Metamorphic Environments | p. 139 |
Agents of Metamorphism | p. 139 |
Heat as a Metamorphic Agent | p. 141 |
Pressure and Stress as Metamorphic Agents | p. 141 |
Chemical Activity as a Metamorphic Agent | p. 142 |
How Metamorphism Alters Rocks | p. 142 |
Textural Changes | p. 142 |
Mineralogical Changes | p. 144 |
Common Metamorphic Rocks | p. 144 |
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks | p. 145 |
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks | p. 146 |
Contact Metamorphism | p. 147 |
Metamorphism Along Fault Zones | p. 149 |
Regional Metamorphism | p. 149 |
Zones of Regional Metamorphism | p. 150 |
Metamorphism and Mineral Resources | p. 151 |
Impact Metamorphism and Tectites | p. 140 |
Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity | p. 155 |
Mass Wasting and Landform Development | p. 157 |
Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting | p. 157 |
The Role of Water | p. 157 |
Oversteepened Slopes | p. 157 |
Vegetation | p. 158 |
Earthquakes as Triggers | p. 158 |
Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes | p. 158 |
Type of Material | p. 159 |
Type of Motion | p. 159 |
Rate of Movement | p. 160 |
Slump | p. 160 |
Rockslide | p. 161 |
Debris Flow | p. 163 |
Debris Flows in Semiarid Regions | p. 163 |
Lahars | p. 163 |
Earthflow | p. 165 |
Slow Movements | p. 166 |
Creep | p. 166 |
Solifluction | p. 166 |
Reducing Debris-Flow Hazards in the San Francisco Bay Region | p. 164 |
The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape | p. 167 |
Running Water | p. 169 |
Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle | p. 170 |
Running Water | p. 171 |
Streamflow | p. 172 |
Gradient and Channel Characteristics | p. 173 |
Discharge | p. 173 |
Changes From Upstream to Downstream | p. 175 |
Base Level and Graded Streams | p. 176 |
Work of Streams | p. 178 |
Erosion | p. 178 |
Transportation | p. 178 |
Deposition | p. 180 |
Stream Valleys | p. 182 |
Narrow Valleys | p. 183 |
Wide Valleys | p. 184 |
Floods and Flood Control | p. 184 |
Causes of Floods | p. 184 |
Flood Control | p. 185 |
Drainage Basins and Patterns | p. 187 |
The Effect of Urbanization on Discharge | p. 174 |
The Red River Floods | p. 181 |
Groundwater | p. 191 |
Importance of Underground Water | p. 192 |
Distribution of Underground Water | p. 193 |
The Water Table | p. 193 |
How Groundwater Moves | p. 196 |
Factors Affecting the Storage and Movement of Groundwater | p. 196 |
Porosity | p. 196 |
Permeability, Aquitards and Aquifers | p. 196 |
Springs | p. 197 |
Wells | p. 197 |
Artesian Wells | p. 198 |
Environmental Problems Associated With Groundwater | p. 199 |
Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource | p. 199 |
Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Withdrawal | p. 200 |
Groundwater Contamination | p. 201 |
Hot Springs and Geysers | p. 202 |
Geothermal Energy | p. 203 |
The Geologic Work of Groundwater | p. 205 |
Caverns | p. 205 |
Karst Topography | p. 207 |
The Ogallala Aquifer--How Long Will the Water Last? | p. 194 |
Glaciers and Glaciation | p. 210 |
Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles | p. 211 |
Valley (Alpine) Glaciers | p. 212 |
Ice Sheets | p. 212 |
Other Types of Glaciers | p. 213 |
How Glaciers Move | p. 213 |
Rates of Glacial Movement | p. 213 |
Budget of a Glacier | p. 214 |
Glacial Erosion | p. 215 |
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion | p. 217 |
Glaciated Valleys | p. 217 |
Aretes and Horns | p. 219 |
Roches Moutonnees | p. 220 |
Glacial Deposits | p. 221 |
Types of Glacial Drift | p. 221 |
Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles | p. 222 |
Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames | p. 224 |
Glaciers of the Ice Age | p. 225 |
Some Indirect Effects of Ice Age Glaciers | p. 225 |
Causes of Glaciation | p. 226 |
Plate Tectonics | p. 227 |
Variations in Earth's Orbit | p. 228 |
What If the Ice Melted? | p. 212 |
Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice | p. 230 |
Deserts and Wind | p. 233 |
Common Misconceptions | p. 234 |
Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands | p. 235 |
Low-Latitude Deserts | p. 235 |
Middle-Latitude Deserts | p. 237 |
Geologic Processes In Aird Climates | p. 237 |
Weathering | p. 238 |
The Role of Water | p. 238 |
Basin and Range: The Evolution of Desert Landscape | p. 239 |
Transportation of Sediment by Wind | p. 241 |
Bed Load | p. 241 |
Suspended Load | p. 241 |
Wind Erosion | p. 242 |
Deflation, Blowouts, and Desert Pavement | p. 243 |
Wind Abrasion | p. 243 |
Wind Deposits | p. 244 |
Sand Deposits | p. 244 |
Types of Sand Dunes | p. 246 |
Loess Deposits | p. 247 |
Desertification: A Global Environmental Problem | p. 236 |
Dust Bowl: Soil Erosion in the Great Plains | p. 242 |
Shorelines | p. 250 |
Waves | p. 251 |
Characteristics of Waves | p. 252 |
Types of Waves | p. 252 |
Wave Erosion | p. 253 |
Wave Refraction | p. 255 |
Moving Sand Along the Beach | p. 256 |
Shoreline Features | p. 258 |
Wave-Cut Cliffs and Platforms | p. 258 |
Arches, Stacks, Spits, and Bars | p. 258 |
Barrier Islands | p. 260 |
The Evolving Shore | p. 260 |
Shoreline Erosion Problems | p. 260 |
Groins | p. 262 |
Breakwaters and Seawalls | p. 262 |
Beach Nourishment | p. 263 |
Abandonment and Relocation | p. 263 |
Contrasting the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts | p. 263 |
Emergent and Submergent Coasts | p. 265 |
Tides | p. 266 |
Causes of Tides | p. 266 |
Spring and Neap Tides | p. 267 |
Tidal Currents | p. 268 |
Louisana's Vanishing Coastal Wetlands | p. 257 |
Is Global Warming Causing Sea Level to Rise? | p. 264 |
The Ocean Floor | p. 270 |
The Vast World Ocean | p. 271 |
Mapping the Ocean Floor | p. 272 |
Continental Margins | p. 277 |
Passive Continental Margins | p. 277 |
Active Continental Margins | p. 278 |
Submarine Canyons and Turbidity Currents | p. 279 |
Features of the Deep Ocean Basin | p. 280 |
Deep-Ocean Trenches | p. 280 |
Abyssal Plains | p. 281 |
Seamounts | p. 281 |
Mid-Ocean Ridges | p. 281 |
Coral Reefs and Atolls | p. 283 |
Seafloor Sediments | p. 284 |
Terrigenous Sediment | p. 284 |
Biogenous Sediment | p. 284 |
Hydrogenous Sediment | p. 285 |
Drilling Deep Into the Ocean Floor | p. 276 |
Seafloor Sediments and Climate Change | p. 285 |
Earthquakes and Earth's Interior | p. 288 |
What Is an Earthquake? | p. 289 |
Earthquakes and Faults | p. 292 |
Elastic Rebound | p. 292 |
Earthquakes Along the San Andreas | p. 293 |
Foreshocks and Aftershocks | p. 294 |
Tectonic Forces and Earthquakes | p. 294 |
Earthquake Waves | p. 295 |
Finding Earthquake Epicenters | p. 297 |
Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude | p. 298 |
Destruction from Earthquakes | p. 300 |
Destruction from Seismic Vibrations | p. 300 |
Tsunami | p. 302 |
Landslides and Ground Subsidence | p. 305 |
Fire | p. 305 |
Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? | p. 305 |
Short-Range Predictions | p. 305 |
Long-Range Forecasts | p. 306 |
Earthquakes and Earth's Interior | p. 307 |
Discovering Earth's Major Layers | p. 308 |
Discovering Earth's Composition | p. 310 |
Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies | p. 291 |
Plate Tectonics | p. 313 |
Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time | p. 314 |
Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle | p. 315 |
Evidence: Fossils Match Across the Seas | p. 315 |
Evidence: Rock Types and Structures Match | p. 317 |
Evidence: Ancient Climates | p. 318 |
The Great Debate | p. 318 |
Plate Tectonics: A Modern Version of an Old Idea | p. 319 |
Plate Boundaries | p. 322 |
Divergent Boundaries | p. 322 |
Convergent Boundaries | p. 325 |
Transform Fault Boundaries | p. 329 |
Testing the Plate Tectonics Model | p. 332 |
Evidence: Paleomagnetism | p. 332 |
Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading | p. 333 |
Evidence: Earthquake Patterns | p. 335 |
Evidence: Ocean Drilling | p. 335 |
Evidence: Hot Spots | p. 337 |
Pangaea: Before and After | p. 338 |
Breakup of Pangaea | p. 339 |
Before Panagea | p. 339 |
The Driving Mechanism | p. 342 |
Convection Current Hypothesis | p. 342 |
Slab-Push and Slab-Pull Hypotheses | p. 344 |
Hot Plumes Hypothesis | p. 344 |
Plate Tectonics Into the Future | p. 342 |
Mountain Building | p. 346 |
Crustal Uplift | p. 348 |
Isostasy | p. 348 |
Isostatic Adjustment | p. 348 |
Rock Deformation | p. 350 |
Types of Deformation | p. 350 |
Folds | p. 351 |
Faults | p. 352 |
Joints | p. 356 |
Mountain Types | p. 357 |
Fault-Block Mountains | p. 357 |
Upwarped Mountains | p. 361 |
Folded Mountains | p. 361 |
Mountain Building | p. 361 |
Mountain Building at Convergent Boundaries | p. 363 |
Mountain Building and Continental Accretion | p. 367 |
The San Andreas Fault System | p. 354 |
The Rocky Mountains | p. 362 |
Geologic Time | p. 370 |
Geology Needs a Time Scale | p. 371 |
Relative Dating--Key Principles | p. 372 |
Law of Superposition | p. 372 |
Principle of Original Horizontality | p. 372 |
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships | p. 372 |
Inclusions | p. 374 |
Unconformities | p. 374 |
Using Relative Dating Principles | p. 375 |
Correlation of Rock Layers | p. 376 |
Fossils: Evidence of Past Life | p. 377 |
Types of Fossils | p. 377 |
Conditions Favoring Preservation | p. 379 |
Fossils and Correlation | p. 381 |
Dating with Radioactivity | p. 382 |
Radioactivity | p. 382 |
Half-Life | p. 384 |
Radiometric Dating | p. 385 |
Dating With Carbon-14 | p. 386 |
Importance of Radiometric Dating | p. 387 |
The Geologic Time Scale | p. 387 |
Structure of the Time Scale | p. 388 |
Precambrian Time | p. 388 |
Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale | p. 388 |
Radon | p. 385 |
Earth History: A Brief Summary | p. 393 |
Origin of Earth | p. 395 |
Earth's Atmosphere Evolves | p. 396 |
Precambrian Time: Vast and Enigmatic | p. 397 |
Precambrian Rocks | p. 397 |
Precambrian Fossils | p. 398 |
Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes | p. 399 |
Early Paleozoic History | p. 399 |
Early Paleozoic Life | p. 402 |
Late Paleozoic History | p. 403 |
Late Paleozoic Life | p. 405 |
Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs | p. 407 |
Mesozoic History | p. 407 |
Mesozoic Life | p. 409 |
Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals | p. 410 |
Cenozoic North America | p. 411 |
Cenozoic Life | p. 415 |
The Great Paleozoic Extinction | p. 407 |
Demise of the Dinosaurs | p. 412 |
Metric and English Units Compared | p. 420 |
Periodic Table of the Elements | p. 422 |
Mineral Identification Key | p. 423 |
Topographic Maps | p. 426 |
Glossary | p. 432 |
Index | p. 445 |
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