Ethics, Technology, and Engineering: An Introduction [Rental Edition]

• Utilizes a systematic approach to ethical case analysis -- the ethical cycle -- which features a wide range of real-life international case studies including the Challenger Space Shuttle, the Herald of Free Enterprise and biofuels.
• Covers a broad range of topics, including ethics in design, risks, responsibility, sustainability, and emerging technologies
• Can be used in conjunction with the online ethics tool Agora (http://www.ethicsandtechnology.com)
• Provides engineering students with a clear introduction to the main ethical theories
• Includes an extensive glossary with key terms

Lambèr Royakkers is Associate Professor in Ethics of Technology at Eindhoven University of Technology, and Associate Professor in Military Ethics at Netherlands Defense Academy. He is also Project Leader of the research programme Moral Fitness of Military Personnel in a Networked Environment, sponsored by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research.

Acknowledgments x

Introduction 1

1 The Responsibilities of Engineers 6

1.1 Introduction 7

1.2 Responsibility 9

1.3 Passive Responsibility 10

1.4 Active Responsibility and the Ideals of Engineers 13

1.4.1 Technological enthusiasm 14

1.4.2 Effectiveness and efficiency 16

1.4.3 Human welfare 18

1.5 Engineers versus Managers 21

1.5.1 Separatism 21

1.5.2 Technocracy 22

1.5.3 Whistle-blowing 23

1.6 The Social Context of Technological Development 25

1.7 Chapter Summary 28

Study Questions 29

Discussion Questions 30

2 Codes of Conduct 31

2.1 Introduction 32

2.2 Codes of Conduct 33

2.2.1 Professional codes 34

2.2.2 Corporate codes 40

2.3 Possibilities and Limitations of Codes of Conduct 43

2.3.1 Codes of conduct and self-interest 44

2.3.2 Vagueness and potential contradictions 46

2.3.3 Can ethics be codified? 48

2.3.4 Can codes of conduct be lived by? 50

2.3.5 Enforcement 52

2.4 Codes of Conduct in an International Context 54

2.4.1 Global codes for multinationals 54

2.4.2 Global codes for engineers 58

2.5 Chapter Summary 61

Study Questions 62

Discussion Questions 63

3 Normative Ethics 65

3.1 Introduction 67

3.2 Ethics and Morality 70

3.3 Descriptive and Normative Judgments 71

3.4 Points of Departure: Values, Norms, and Virtues 72

3.4.1 Values 72

3.4.2 Norms 74

3.4.3 Virtues 75

3.5 Relativism and Absolutism 75

3.5.1 Normative relativism 76

3.5.2 Absolutism 76

3.6 Ethical Theories 77

3.7 Utilitarianism 78

3.7.1 Jeremy Bentham 79

3.7.2 Mill and the freedom principle 84

3.7.3 Criticism of utilitarianism 86

3.7.4 Applying utilitarianism to the Ford Pinto case 88

3.8 Kantian Theory 89

3.8.1 Categorical imperative 90

3.8.2 Criticism of Kantian theory 93

3.8.3 Applying Kant’s theory to the Ford Pinto case 95

3.9 Virtue Ethics 95

3.9.1 Aristotle 96

3.9.2 Criticism of virtue ethics 98

3.9.3 Virtues for morally responsible engineers 99

3.10 Care Ethics 102

3.10.1 The importance of relationships 102

3.10.2 Criticism of care ethics 103

3.10.3 Care ethics in engineering 103

3.11 Applied Ethics 105

3.12 Chapter Summary 106

Study Questions 107

Discussion Questions 108

4 Normative Argumentation 109

4.1 Introduction 110

4.2 Valid Arguments 113

4.3 Deductive and Non-Deductive Arguments 116

4.4 Arguments in Ethical Theories 118

4.4.1 Argumentation by analogy 118

4.4.2 Arguments in a utilitarian plea 119

4.4.3 Argumentation in Kantian reasoning 122

4.4.4 Argumentation in virtue-ethical reasoning 126

4.5 Fallacies 127

4.5.1 Some common fallacies in ethical discussions 127

4.5.2 Fallacies of risk 129

4.6 Chapter Summary 131

Study Questions 131

Discussion Questions 132

5 The Ethical Cycle 133

5.1 Introduction 134

5.2 Ill-Structured Problems 135

5.3 The Ethical Cycle 137

5.3.1 Moral problem statement 138

5.3.2 Problem analysis 142

5.3.3 Options for actions 143

5.3.4 Ethical evaluation 145

5.3.5 Reflection 146

5.4 An Example 147

5.4.1 Moral problem statement 149

5.4.2 Problem analysis 150

5.4.3 Options for actions 151

5.4.4 Ethical evaluation 151

5.4.5 Reflection 153

5.5 Collective Moral Deliberation and Social Arrangements 155

5.6 Chapter Summary 157

Study Questions 158

Discussion Questions 159

6 Ethical Questions in the Design of Technology 161

6.1 Introduction 163

6.2 Ethical Issues During the Design Process 165

6.2.1 Problem analysis and formulation 166

6.2.2 Conceptual design 168

6.2.3 Simulation 170

6.2.4 Decision 171

6.2.5 Detail design 173

6.2.6 Prototype development and testing 174

6.2.7 Manufacture and construction 175

6.3 Trade-offs and Value Conflicts 177

6.3.1 Cost-benefit analysis 180

6.3.2 Multiple criteria analysis 183

6.3.3 Thresholds 185

6.3.4 Reasoning 187

6.3.5 Value Sensitive Design 188

6.3.6 A comparison of the different methods 189

6.4 Regulatory Frameworks: Normal and Radical Design 190

6.5 Chapter Summary 194

Study Questions 195

Discussion Questions 197

7 Designing Morality 198
Peter-Paul Verbeek

7.1 Introduction 199

7.2 Ethics as a Matter of Things 200

7.3 Technological Mediation 201

7.3.1 Mediation of perception 202

7.3.2 Mediation of action 204

7.4 Moralizing Technology 205

7.4.1 Criticizing the moral character of technological artifacts 206

7.4.2 Taking mediation into ethics 207

7.5 Designing Mediations 211

7.6 Chapter Summary 214

Study Questions 215

Discussion Questions 216

8 Ethical Aspects of Technical Risks 217

8.1 Introduction 219

8.2 Definitions of Central Terms 221

8.3 The Engineer’s Responsibility for Safety 223

8.4 Risk Assessment 225

8.4.1 The reliability of risk assessments 227

8.5 When are Risks Acceptable? 228

8.5.1 Informed consent 231

8.5.2 Do the advantages outweigh the risks? 232

8.5.3 The availability of alternatives 233

8.5.4 Are risks and benefits justly distributed? 234

8.6 Risk Communication 236

8.7 Dealing with Uncertainty and Ignorance 237

8.7.1 The precautionary principle 238

8.7.2 Engineering as a societal experiment 241

8.8 Chapter Summary 244

Study Questions 245

Discussion Questions 247

9 The Distribution of Responsibility in Engineering 249

9.1 Introduction 250

9.2 The Problem of Many Hands 252

9.2.1 The CitiCorp building 253

9.2.2 Causes of the problem of many hands 256

9.2.3 Distributing responsibility 257

9.3 Responsibility and the Law 258

9.3.1 Liability versus regulation 259

9.3.2 Negligence versus strict liability 260

9.3.3 Corporate liability 263

9.4 Responsibility in Organizations 263

9.5 Responsibility Distributions and Technological Designs 267

9.6 Chapter Summary 272

Study Questions 273

Discussion Questions 274

10 Sustainability, Ethics, and Technology 277
Michiel Brumsen

10.1 Introduction 278

10.2 Environmental Ethics? 280

10.3 Environmental Problems 281

10.4 Sustainable Development 283

10.4.1 The Brundtland definition 283

10.4.2 Moral justification 284

10.4.3 Operationalization 286

10.5 Can a Sustainable Society be Realized? 289

10.6 Engineers and Sustainability 291

10.6.1 Points of attention during the design process 292

10.6.2 Life cycle analysis 293

10.7 Chapter Summary 298

Study Questions 299

Discussion Questions 300

Appendix I: Engineering Qualifications and Organizations in a Number of Countries 301

Appendix II: NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers 307

Appendix III: FEANI Position Paper on Code of Conduct: Ethics and Conduct of Professional Engineers 313

Appendix IV: Shell Code of Conduct 315

Appendix V: DSM Values and Whistle Blowing Policy 320

Glossary 329

References 340

Index of Cases 351

Index 352

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