Explorations : An Introduction to Astronomy with Interactive CD-ROM

, by Arny, Thomas T.

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ISBN: 9780075611127 | 0075611120
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 9/1/1999

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Supplemental Materials

Preface

xxi

Introduction The Cosmic Landscape

(1)

The Earth, Our Home

(1)

The Moon

(1)

The Planets

(2)

The Sun

(1)

The Solar System

(1)

A Sense of Scale

(1)

The Astronomical Unit

(1)

The Milky Way Galaxy

(2)

The Light Year

(1)

Galaxy Clusters and the Universe

(1)

Gravity

(1)

Atoms and Other Forces

(1)

The Scientific Method

(10)

Overview I The Night Sky

(6)

History of Astronomy

(56)

Prehistoric Astronomy

(13)

The Celestial Sphere

(1)

Constellations

(1)

Motions of the Sun and Stars

(1)

Daily or Diurnal Motion

(1)

Annual Motion

(1)

The Ecliptic

(2)

Solstices and Equinoxes

(1)

The Planets and the Zodiac

(2)

The Moon

(2)

Eclipses

(1)

Early Ideas of the Heavens: Classical Astronomy

(7)

The Shape of the Earth

(1)

The Size of the Earth

(1)

Distance and Size of Sun and Moon

(2)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Diameter of Astronomical Objects

(1)

The Motion of the Planets

(1)

Ptolemy

(1)

Islamic Contributions

(1)

Asian Contributions

(1)

Astronomy in the Renaissance

(7)

Copernicus

(2)

Tycho and Kepler

(3)

Galileo

(2)

Isaac Newton and the Birth of Astrophysis

(1)

The Growth of Astrophysics

(8)

New Discoveries

(1)

New Technologies

(1)

The Natuere of Matter and Heat

(1)

The Kelvin Temperature Scale

(4)

Project

(3)

Backyard Astronomy

(20)

Learning the Constellations

(1)

Star Lore

(2)

Amateur Astronomy

(1)

Small Telescopes

(2)

Star Charts

(1)

Celestial Coordinates

(1)

Planetary Configurations

(1)

Your Eyes at Night

(5)

Overview II Atoms, Forces, Light, and How We Learn About the Universe

(8)

Gravity and Motion

(16)

Solving the Problem of Astronomical Motion

(1)

Inertia

(2)

Orbital Motion and Gravity

(1)

Newton's Second Law of Motion

(2)

Acceleration

(1)

Mass

(1)

The Law of Gravity

(1)

Newton's Third Law

(1)

Measuring a Body's Mass Using Orbital Motion

(2)

Surface Gravity

(2)

Escape Velocity

(3)

Light and Atoms

(30)

Properties of Light

(3)

The Nature of Light---Waves or Particles?

(2)

Light and Color

(1)

Characterizing Electromagnetic Waves by Their Frequency

(1)

White Light

(1)

The Electromagnetic Spectrum: Beyond Visible Light

(6)

Infrared Radiation

(1)

Ultraviolet Light

(1)

Radio Waves

(1)

Other Wavelength Regions

(1)

Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Radiation

100

(1)

Wien's Law: a Wavelength-Temperature Relation

100

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Taking the Temperature of the Sun

101

(1)

Blackbodies and Wien's Law

102

(1)

Atoms

103

(1)

Structure of Atoms

103

(1)

The Chemical Elements

103

(1)

The Origin of Light

104

(2)

Formation of a Spectrum

106

(6)

How a Spectrum Is Formed

106

(2)

Identifying Atoms by their Light

108

(1)

Types of Spectra

109

(1)

Depicting Spectra

110

(1)

Analyzing the Spectrum

110

(1)

Astronomical Spectra

111

(1)

The Doppler Shift

112

(1)

Absorption in the Atmosphere

113

(10)

Overview III The Earth and Moon

117

(6)

The Earth

123

(30)

The Earth as a Planet

124

(3)

Shape and Size of the Earth

124

(2)

Composition of the Earth

126

(1)

Density of the Earth

126

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring The Earth's Mass

127

(1)

The Earth's Interior

127

(5)

Probing the Interior with Earthquake Waves

128

(2)

Heating of the Earth's Core

130

(2)

The Age of the Earth

132

(1)

Motions in the Earth's Interior

133

(4)

Convection in the Earth's Interior

133

(1)

Plate Tectonics

133

(4)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring Motion of Plates Across Time

137

(1)

The Earth's Atmosphere

137

(4)

Composition of the Atmosphere

137

(1)

Origin of the Atmosphere

137

(2)

The Ozone Layer

139

(1)

The Greenhouse Effect

140

(1)

Structure of the Atmosphere

140

(1)

The Earth's Magnetic Field

141

(3)

Origin of Earth's Magnetic Field

142

(1)

Magnetic Effects in the Upper Atmosphere

142

(2)

Motions of the Earth

144

(9)

The Seasons

144

(2)

Air and Ocean Circulation: The Coriolis Effect

146

(2)

Precession

148

(3)

Projects

151

(2)

Telescopes

153

(32)

Telescopes

154

(8)

Collecting Power

154

(1)

Focusing the Light

154

(2)

Extending Our Reach: Refraction

156

(5)

Resolving Power

161

(1)

Interferometers

162

(1)

Observatories

163

(1)

Detecting the Light

163

(1)

Observing at Nonvisible Wavelengths

164

(4)

Extending Our Reach: Observing the Crab Nebula at Many Wavelengths

167

Extending Our Reach: Exploring New Wavelengths: Gamma Rays

166

(2)

Observatories in Space

168

(5)

Atmospheric Blurring

169

(2)

Space Observatories versus Ground-Based Observatories

171

(2)

Going Observing

173

(1)

Computers

173

(1)

Astronomers

174

(3)

Projects

Keeping Time

177

(8)

Length of the Daylight Hours

177

(1)

The Day

177

(3)

Time Zones

180

(1)

Universal Time

180

(1)

Daylight Saving Time

180

(1)

The Month

181

(1)

The Calendar

181

(1)

Leap Year

182

(1)

Religious Calendars

182

(1)

Other Calenders

183

(1)

Names of the Months and Days

183

(1)

The Abbreviations A.M., P.M., B.C., and A.D.

183

(2)

The Moon

185

(32)

Description of the Moon

186

(4)

General Features

186

(1)

Surface Features

186

(2)

Origin of Lunar Surface Features

188

(2)

Structure of the Moon

190

(2)

Crust and Interior

191

(1)

The Absence of a Lunar Atmosphere

192

(1)

Orbit and Motions of the Moon

192

(2)

The Moon's Rotation

193

(1)

Oddities of the Moon's Orbit

194

(1)

Origin and History of the Moon

194

(2)

Eclipses

196

(5)

Rarity of Eclipses

198

(1)

Appearance of Eclipses

199

(2)

Tides

201

(4)

Cause of Tides

201

(2)

Solar Tides

203

(1)

Tidal Braking

204

(1)

Moon Lore

205

(12)

Projects

207

(2)

Overview IV The Solar System

209

(8)

Survey of the Solar System

217

(22)

Components of the Solar System

219

(7)

The Sun

219

(1)

The Planets

219

(1)

Two Types of Planets

220

(1)

Satellites

221

(1)

Asteroids and Comets

222

(1)

Composition Differences between the Inner and Outer Planets

223

(1)

Density as a Measure of a Planet's Composition

223

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Bode's Law: The Search for Order

224

(1)

Age of the Solar System

225

(1)

Origin of the Solar System

226

(13)

Interstellar Clouds

227

(1)

Formation of the Solar Nebula

228

(1)

Condensation in the Solar Nebula

228

(1)

Accretion and Planetesimals

229

(1)

Formation of the Planets

230

(1)

Fomation of Moons

231

(1)

Final Stages of Planet Formation

231

(2)

Formation of Atmospheres

233

(1)

Cleaning up the Solar System

233

(1)

Remodeling: Other Planetary Systems

233

(6)

The Terrestrial Planets

239

(32)

Portraits of the Terrestrial Planets

240

(2)

Mercury

242

(5)

Mercury's Temperature and Atmosphere

243

(1)

Mercury's Interior

244

(1)

Mercury's Rotation

245

(2)

Venus

247

(6)

The Venusian Atmosphere

247

(1)

The Greenhouse Effect

248

(1)

The Surface of Venus

249

(3)

Interior of Venus

252

(1)

Rotation of Venus

253

(1)

Mars

253

(10)

The Martian Atmosphere

257

(3)

The Martian Interior

260

(1)

The Martian Moons

261

(1)

Life on Mars?

262

(1)

Why Are the Terrestrial Planets so Different?

263

(8)

Role of Mass and Radius

263

(1)

Role of Internal Activity

263

(1)

Role of Sunlight

264

(1)

Role of Water Content

264

(1)

Role of Biological Processes

264

(7)

The Outer Planets

271

(26)

Jupiter

272

(8)

Appearance and Physical Properties

272

(1)

Jupiter's Interior

273

(1)

Jupiter's Atmosphere

274

(2)

Jupiter's Ring

276

(1)

Jupiter's Moons

277

(3)

Saturn

280

(5)

Saturn's Appearance and Physical Properties

280

(1)

Saturn's Rings

281

(2)

Origin of Planetary Rings

283

(1)

The of Planetary Rings

283

(1)

Saturn's Moons

284

(1)

Uranus

285

(3)

Uranus's Atmosphere

286

(1)

Uranus's Interior

286

(1)

Uranus's Rings and Moons

287

(1)

Uranus's Odd Tilt

288

(1)

Neptune

288

(4)

Neptune's Structure

289

(1)

Neptune's Atmosphere

289

(2)

Neptune's Rings and Moons

291

(1)

Pluto

292

(5)

Meteors, Asteroids, and Comets

297

(28)

Meteors and Meteorites

298

(2)

Heating of Meteorites

298

(1)

Meteorites

299

(1)

Asteroids

300

(5)

Size and Shpae

300

(2)

Composition

302

(1)

Origin of Asteroids

302

(2)

Unusual Asteroids

304

(1)

Comets

305

(7)

Structure of Comets

305

(2)

Composition of Comets

307

(1)

Origin of Comets

307

(2)

Formation of the Comet's Tail

309

(1)

Light from the Comet's Tail

310

(1)

Short-Period Comets

310

(1)

Fate of Short-Period Comets

310

(1)

Meteor Showers

311

(1)

Giant Impacts

312

(13)

Giant Meteor Craters

312

(2)

Mass Extinction and Asteroid/Comet Impacts

314

(3)

Projects

317

(2)

Overview V Stars

319

(6)

The Sun, Our Star

325

(26)

Size and Structue

326

(5)

Measuring the Sun's Properties

327

(1)

The Solar Interior

328

(1)

Energy Transport

329

(1)

The Solar Atmosphere

330

(1)

How the Sun Works

331

(4)

Internal Balance (Hydrostatic Equilibrium)

331

(1)

Pressure in the Sun

332

(1)

Powering the Sun

333

(1)

Nuclear Fusion

333

(1)

The Structure of Hydrogen and Helium

334

(1)

The Proton-Proton Chain

334

(1)

Probing the Sun's Core

335

(3)

Solar Neutrinos

335

(2)

Solar Seismology

337

(1)

Solar Magnetic Activity

338

(5)

Sunspots

338

(1)

Solar Magnetic Fields

339

(1)

Prominences and Flares

339

(1)

Heating of the Chromosphere and Corona

340

(1)

The Solar Wind

341

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Detecting Magnetic Fields: the Zeeman Effect

342

(1)

The Solar Cycle

343

(8)

Cause of the Solar Cycle

343

(2)

Changes in the Solar Cycle

345

(1)

Links between the Solar Cycle and Terrestrial Climate

345

(4)

Projects

349

(2)

Measuring the Properties of Stars

351

(34)

Measuring a Star's Distance

352

(3)

Measuring Distance by Triangulation and Parallax

352

(2)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Distance to Sirius

354

(1)

Measuring Distace by the Standard Candle Method

355

(1)

Measuring the Properties of Stars from Their Light

355

(7)

Temperature

356

(1)

Luminosity

357

(1)

The Inverse-Square Law and Measuring a Star's Luminosity

357

(1)

Radius

358

(1)

The Stefan-Boltzmann Law

358

(2)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Radius of the Star Sirius

360

(1)

The Magnitude System

361

(1)

Spectra of Stars

362

(6)

Measuring a Star's Composition

363

(1)

How Temperature Affects a Star's Spectrum

363

(1)

Classification of Stellar Spectra

364

(1)

Definition of the Spectral Classes

365

(1)

Measuring a Star's Motion

366

(2)

Binary Stars

368

(3)

Visual and Spectroscopic Binaries

369

(1)

Measuring Stellar Masses with Binary Stars

369

(2)

Eclipsing Binary Stars

371

(1)

Summary of Stellar Properties

371

(1)

The H-R Diagram

372

(5)

Constructing the H-R Diagram

373

(1)

Analyzing the H-R Diagram

374

(1)

Giants and Dwarfs

375

(1)

The Mass-Luminosity Relation

375

(1)

Luminosity Classes

376

(1)

Summary of the H-R Diagram

377

(1)

Variable Stars

377

(2)

Finding a Star's Distance by the Method of Standard Candles

379

(6)

Projects

383

(2)

Stellar Evolution

385

(28)

The Evolution of a Star

386

(4)

The Sun's Life Story

387

(1)

The Life Story of a High-Mass Star

388

(1)

The Importance of Gravity

389

(1)

Star Formation

390

(4)

Interstellar Gas Clouds

390

(1)

Protostars

391

(1)

Bipolar Flows from Young Stars

392

(1)

Stellar Mass Limits

393

(1)

Main-Sequence Stars

394

(2)

Why a Star's Mass Determines Its Core Temperature

394

(1)

Structure of High-Mass and Low-Mass Stars

394

(1)

Main-Sequence Lifetime of a Star

395

(1)

Giant Stars

396

(2)

Leaving the Main Sequence

396

(1)

Nuclear Fuels Heavier than Hydrogen

396

(1)

Degeneracy in Low-Mass Stars

397

(1)

Yellow Giants and Pulsating Stars

398

(2)

Why Do Stars Pulsate?

398

(2)

The Period-Luminosity Relation

400

(1)

Death of Stars Like the Sun

400

(2)

Ejection of a Low-Mass Star's Outer Layers

400

(1)

Planetary Nebulas

401

(1)

Old Age of Massive Stars

402

(4)

Formation of Heavy Elements: Nucleosynthesis

402

(1)

Core Collapse of Massive Stars

403

(1)

Supernova Explosions

404

(1)

Supernova Remnants

404

(2)

History of Stellar Evolution Theories

406

(1)

Testing Stellar Evolution Theory

407

(6)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring The Age of a Star Cluster

408

(5)

Stellar Remnants: White Dwarfs, Neutron Stars, and Black Holes

413

(26)

White Dwarfs

414

(4)

General Properties, Origin, and Fate

414

(1)

Structure of White Dwarfs

415

(1)

Degeneracy and the Chandrasekhar Limit

416

(1)

White Dwarfs in Binary Systems: Novas and Supernovas of Type I

416

(2)

Neutron Stars

418

(6)

General Properties and Origin

418

(1)

Pulsars and the Discovery of Neutron Stars

419

(2)

Emission from Neutron Stars

421

(2)

X-Ray Binary Stars

423

(1)

Black Holes

424

(15)

The Formation of Black Holes

426

(1)

Observing Black Holes

426

(1)

Gravitational Waves from Double Compact Stars

427

(1)

Hawking Radiation

428

(5)

Overview VI The Milky Way and Other Galaxies

433

(6)

The Milky Way Galaxy

439

(34)

Discovering the Milky Way

441

(3)

Shape of the Milky Way

441

(1)

Size of the Milky Way

442

(2)

Overview of the Milky Way

444

(2)

Structure and Contents

444

(2)

Mass of the Milky Way and the Number of Stars

446

(1)

Age of the Milky Way

446

(1)

Stars of the Milky Way

446

(5)

Stellar Censuses and the Mass Function

446

(1)

Two Stellar Populations: Population I and Population II

447

(2)

Star Clusters

449

(2)

Gas and Dust in the Milky Way

451

(6)

Interstellar Dust: Obscuration and Reddening

452

(2)

Interstellar Gas

454

(1)

Visible Emission from Interstellar Gas

454

(2)

Radio Waves from Cold Interstellar Gas

456

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Mapping the Milky Way with Radio Waves

456

(1)

Motion of Stars and Gas in the Milky Way

457

(3)

Measuring the Milky Way

460

(3)

Diameter of the Milky Way

460

(1)

Mass of the Milky Way

461

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Mass of the Milky Way

461

(2)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Sun's Speed Around the Milky Way

463

(1)

The Galactic Center

463

(2)

History of the Milky Way

465

(8)

Formation of our Galaxy

465

(1)

Collapse of the Proto-Milky Way and the Birth of Population I and II Stars

466

(1)

Population III

467

(1)

The Future of the Milky Way

468

(3)

Project

471

(2)

Galaxies

473

(32)

Discovering Galaxies

474

(10)

Early Observations of Galaxies

474

(1)

Types of Galaxies

475

(4)

Differences in the Stellar and Gas Content of Galaxies

479

(1)

The Cause of Galaxy Types

480

(1)

Galaxy Collisions and Mergers

481

(3)

Measuring Properties of Galaxies

484

(4)

Galaxy Distances

484

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Distance of a Galaxy Using Cepheid Variables

485

(1)

The Redshift and the Hubble Law

485

(2)

Measuring the Diameter of a Galaxy

487

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Other Ways to Measure a Galaxy's Distance

487

(1)

Measuring the Mass of a Galaxy

488

(1)

Dark Matter

488

(2)

Active Galaxies

490

(5)

Radio Galaxies

490

(1)

Seyfert Galaxies

491

(1)

Quasars

492

(1)

Cause of Activity in Galaxies

492

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Diameter of Astronomical Objects by Using Their Light Variability

493

(2)

Quasars as Probes of Intergalactic Space

495

(2)

Gravitational Lenses

495

(2)

Extending Our Reach: Dark Matter and Gravitational Lenses

497

(1)

Galaxy Clusters

497

(8)

The Local Group

498

(1)

Rich and Poor Galaxy Clusters

499

(1)

Superclusters

500

(4)

Project

504

(1)

Cosmology

505

(36)

Observations of the Universe

506

(9)

Distribution of Galaxies

506

(1)

Motion of Galaxies

507

(1)

Age of the Universe

508

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Estimating the Age of the Universe

509

(1)

The Cosmic Horizon

510

(1)

The Size of the Universe

510

(1)

Are We at the Center of the Universe?

511

(1)

Olbers' Paradox

511

(1)

The Cosmic Background Radiation

512

(2)

Composition of the Oldest Stars

514

(1)

Conclusions Deduced from the Basic Observations of the Universe

514

(1)

Evolution of the Universe: Open or Closed?

515

(2)

The Density of the Universe

516

(1)

Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Density of the Universe

517

(1)

The Shape of the Universe

517

(2)

The Origin of the Universe

519

(3)

Radiation, Matter, and Antimatter in the Early Universe

520

(1)

History of Matter and Radiation in the Early Universe

520

(1)

The Formation of Galaxies

521

(1)

The Inflationary Universe

522

(7)

Extending Our Reach: New Ideas in Cosmology

523

(1)

Grand Unified Theories

523

(2)

Other Universes?

525

(4)

Life in the Universe

529

(12)

Life on Earth

529

(1)

History of Life on Earth

529

(1)

Unity of Living Beings

530

(2)

Deductions from the Unity of Life and the Time Line

532

(1)

Origin of Life on Earth

532

(1)

Origin of Complex Organisms

533

(1)

Panspermia

533

(1)

Life Elsewhere in the Universe

533

(1)

Are We Alone?

534

(1)

Arguments for Many Worlds

534

(1)

Loners

535

(1)

Searching for Life Elsewhere

535

(1)

Radio Searches

535

(1)

The Gaia Hypothesis

536

(1)

The Anthropic Principle

537

(4)

Answers to Test Yourself

541

(1)

Appendix Powers-of-Ten Notation

542

(1)

Some Useful Formulas

542

(11)

Solving Distance, Velocity, Time (D, v, t)

Problems

542

(11)

Physical and Astronomical Constants

543

(1)

Conversion between American and Metric Units

544

(1)

Physical Properties of the Planets

544

(1)

Orbital Properties of the Planets

544

(1)

Satellites of the Solar System

545

(1)

Meteor Showers

546

(1)

The Constellations

547

(2)

The Brightest Stars

549

(1)

The Nearest Stars

550

(1)

Properties of Main-Sequence Stars

550

(3)

Glossary

553

(18)

Index

571

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