Exploring Geographic Information Systems

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ISBN: 9780471314257 | 0471314250
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 6/7/2001

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Uses case studies to examine the various applications of each type of geographic information. * Considers geographic information as a technical problem, an empowering application, a pure science endeavor, an academic pursuit and a social necessity. * Provides a wide range of examples and applications to help readers understand technical discussions.

Preface: Call for Participation in an Exploration

iii

Organization of the Book

Acknowledgments

vii

PART I: BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

(102)

Introduction

(1)

Beginning the Exploration

(8)

Behind a Black Door

(1)

The Weekly Meeting

(1)

The Surrounding Causes

(1)

Source of the Model

(2)

Linking the Pieces

(1)

Extracting Lessons

(1)

Further Explorations: La Selva Project

(1)

Convergence of Many Technologies

(4)

Defining a Geographic Information System

(3)

Reference Systems for Measurement

(22)

How Information Works

(1)

Basic Components of Geographic Information

(9)

Reference Systems

(1)

Temporal Reference Systems

(1)

Spatial Reference Systems

(4)

Attribute Reference Systems

(1)

Levels of Measurement

(9)

Nominal

(1)

Ordinal

(1)

Interval

(1)

Ratio

(1)

Extensive and Derived Scales

(3)

What is Missing from Stevens

(1)

Absolute Scales

(1)

Cyclical Measures

(1)

Counts

(1)

Graded Membership in Categories

(1)

Applying Levels of Measurement to Attribute Reference Systems

(1)

Summary

(3)

Measurement Frameworks

(34)

A Simple Measurement Framework

(3)

Control and Measurement

(3)

Attribute as Control

(9)

Isolated Object Frameworks

(1)

Spatial Object Framework

(1)

Isoline Framework

(1)

Connected Coverage Frameworks and Topological Relationships

(4)

Network Framework

(1)

Categorical Coverage Framework

(2)

Spatial Control

(6)

Point-based Frameworks

(1)

Center Point Framework

(2)

Systematic Unaligned Sample

(1)

Area-based Measurement Frameworks

(1)

Extreme Value

(1)

Total

(1)

Predominant Type

(1)

Presence/Absence and Percent Cover

(1)

Precedence of Types

(1)

Relationship Control

(2)

Measurement by Pair

(1)

Triangulated Irregular Networks (TIN)

(1)

Composite Frameworks

(6)

Scattered Point Samples

(1)

Associating Attributes---Indirect Measurement

(2)

Choropleth Framework

(2)

Temporal Frameworks

(2)

Summary

(2)

Representation

(32)

Primitives for Representation

(3)

Primitives for Attributes

(1)

Primitives for Time

(1)

Primitive for Space: Coordinates

(2)

Representation Models and Data Structures

(8)

Vector Model

(1)

Representing Isolated Objects

(2)

Representing Topological Relationships

(1)

Raster Model

(4)

Database Architecture

(2)

Conversion of Existing Documents (Digitizing)

(11)

Geocoding

(1)

Vector Tracing

(1)

Raster Scanners

(2)

Transforming Digitizer Measurements into Coordinates

(1)

Registration on Device

(3)

Transformations from Document to Projection

(1)

Reference to Geodetic Surveys

(1)

After Digitizing

(2)

Data Quality: Closing the Loop

(6)

Scale of Sources

(1)

Verification and Quality Control

(4)

Summary

102

(1)

PART 2: TRANSFORMATIONS AND OPERATIONS

103

(140)

Attribute-based Operations

105

(14)

Manipulating Attributes

105

(6)

Reducing the Information Content

106

(1)

Group

106

(1)

Isolate

107

(1)

Classify

107

(1)

Scale

108

(1)

Increasing the Information Content

109

(1)

Rank

109

(1)

Evaluate

110

(1)

Rescale

110

(1)

Combining Pairs of Input Values

111

(3)

Cross-tabulate

111

(1)

Sum and Difference

112

(1)

Rate and Density

112

(1)

Proportion

112

(1)

Performing Combinations

112

(2)

Interaction of Attribute and Spatial Components

114

(4)

Spatial Consequences of Aggregation and Isolation

114

(2)

Cartographic Generalization

116

(2)

Summary

118

(1)

Overlay: Integration of Disparate Sources

119

(34)

Development of Map Overlay

119

(3)

The Overlay Operation

122

(9)

Registration: A Universal Requirement

122

(1)

Raster Implementations of Overlay

123

(2)

Vector Implementations of Overlay

125

(1)

Geometric Intersection Processing

126

(2)

Attribute Handling Using Results of Overlay

128

(3)

Comparisons of Performance and Capabilities

131

(1)

Combining Attributes after Overlay

131

(21)

Enumeration Rules

134

(1)

Detecting Differences

134

(1)

Interpreting Differences

135

(2)

Dominance Rules

137

(1)

Exclusionary Screening

137

(4)

Exclusionary Ranking

141

(1)

Highest Bid/Highest Bidder

141

(1)

Contributory Rules

142

(1)

Voting Tabulation

142

(1)

Weighted Voting

143

(1)

Linear Combination

143

(3)

Weighting and Rating

146

(2)

Nonlinear Combinations

148

(1)

Interaction Rules

149

(1)

Contingent Weighting

149

(2)

Evaluating Interactions

151

(1)

Rules of Combination

151

(1)

Summary of Rules

152

(1)

Summary

152

(1)

Distance Relationships

153

(16)

Examples of Distance Specifications

153

(5)

Exclusionary Zones around Features: Buffers and Setbacks

154

(3)

Beyond Buffers and Setbacks

157

(1)

Distance Measurement

158

(6)

Distance Relationships

158

(1)

Constructing Buffers with Vector Data

159

(1)

Measuring Distance in a Raster

159

(4)

Comparison

163

(1)

Extended Voronoi Networks

164

(2)

Data Quality Aspects of Distance Relationships

166

(1)

Summary

167

(2)

Surfaces and Near Neighbors

169

(26)

Surfaces

169

(10)

Topology of Surfaces

171

(3)

Computing Relationships on a Surface

174

(2)

Slope from Triangles

176

(1)

Slope from Matrices

176

(3)

Neighborhood Operations: The Spatial Component

179

(3)

Neighborhood Construction

179

(1)

Raster Neighbors

180

(1)

Vector Neighbors

180

(1)

Edge Effects

181

(1)

Refinements of Neighborhoods

182

(1)

Combining Neighborhood Attributes

182

(11)

Nominal Attributes

182

(1)

Dominance Rules

183

(4)

Contributory Rules

187

(1)

Interaction Rules

187

(1)

Operations Based on Ranking Attributes

188

(2)

Continuous Attributes

190

(1)

Aspatial Treatment of Continuous Attributes in a Neighborhood

190

(1)

Continuous Attributes with Horizontal Measures

191

(2)

Data Quality Applications of Neighborhood Operations

193

(1)

Summary

194

(1)

Comprehensive Operations

195

(22)

Iterative Operations

196

(15)

Viewshed

196

(4)

Cost Accumulation

200

(5)

An Example of Cost Surface Construction: A Water Pipeline

205

(3)

Drainage Operations

208

(1)

Network Operations

209

(2)

Location-Allocation: A Family of Problems with a Common Approach

211

(3)

Statistical Modeling of Spatial Data

214

(3)

Transformations

217

(26)

Prior Approaches to Transformations

217

(1)

Transformations for Surfaces

218

(9)

Interpolation

219

(1)

Interpolation from Scattered Points

220

(2)

Interpolation from Isolines

222

(1)

Interpolation from a DEM

223

(1)

To and From Triangles

224

(3)

A Scheme for Transformations

227

(3)

Transformation by Extraction (Case 0)

228

(1)

Transformations Based on Attribute Assumptions (Case 1A)

228

(1)

Transformations Based on Geometric Processing Only (Case 1N)

228

(1)

Complete Transformations (Case 2)

229

(1)

Re-presenting Surface Transformations

229

(1)

Examples of Transformations

230

(12)

Case 1A: Classification of Remotely Sensed Imagery

230

(1)

Forest Mapping for the United States

231

(2)

Case 1N: Geometric Measures Converted to Attributes

233

(1)

Wetland Regulation and Wasteland Assessment in Westport, Wisconsin

234

(4)

Case 2: Areal Interpolation

238

(2)

Dasymetric Mapping of Population Density, Cape Cod

240

(2)

Summary

242

(1)

PART 3: THE BROADER ARENA

243

(42)

Evaluation and Implementation

245

(20)

Technical Evaluation

245

(6)

Data Quality Assessment

246

(1)

Measurement Frameworks and Accuracy

246

(2)

Strategy for Testing

248

(1)

Allocation of Resources

248

(1)

Computer Resources

248

(1)

Financial Resources

249

(2)

Human Resources

251

(1)

Implementing a GIS

251

(12)

Needs Assessment

253

(2)

Requirements Analysis

255

(1)

Database Design

255

(1)

Approaches to Geographic Measurement

256

(4)

Bidding Process

260

(1)

Construction

261

(2)

Serving Larger Goals

263

(2)

Social and Institutional Interactions

265

(20)

Historical Trends in Technological Change

266

(1)

Geography of Geographic Information

267

(4)

Geographic Information in the Bureaucracy

271

(5)

Institutional Continuity

272

(2)

Institutional Definitions of Time and History

274

(1)

Cooperation and Coordination

275

(1)

Information in Its Social Context

276

(4)

Equity

277

(1)

Access to Information

278

(2)

Balancing Competing Concerns

280

(1)

Information and Culture

280

(3)

Culture: Continuity and Change

281

(1)

The Practice of GIS

282

(1)

Summary

283

(2)

Bibliography

285

(8)

Sources and Credits

293

(4)

Index

297

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Exploring Geographic Information Systems

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials