Fabrication Engineering at the Micro- and Nanoscale

Designed for advanced undergraduate or first-year graduate courses in semiconductor or microelectronic fabrication, Fabrication Engineering at the Micro- and Nanoscale, Fourth Edition, covers the entire basic unit processes used to fabricate integrated circuits and other devices.

With many worked examples and detailed illustrations, this engaging introduction provides the tools needed to understand the frontiers of fabrication processes.

Stephen A. Campbell is the Bordeau Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Minnesota and a fellow of IEEE.

* = This section provides background material.
** = This section contains advanced material and can be omitted without loss of the basic content of the course.

PART I. OVERVIEW AND MATERIALS

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication
1.1 Microelectronic Technologies: A Simple Example
1.2 Unit Processes and Technologies
1.3 A Roadmap for the Course
1.4 Summary

Chapter 2. Semiconductor Substrates
2.1 Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility*
2.2 Crystallography and Crystal Structure*
2.3 Crystal Defects
2.4 Czochralski Growth
2.5 Bridgman Growth of GaAs
2.6 Float Zone and Other Growth
2.7 Wafer Preparation and Specifications
2.8 Summary and Future Trends
Problems
References

PART II. UNIT PROCESSES I: HOT PROCESSING AND ION IMPLANTATION

Chapter 3. Diffusion
3.1 Fick's Diffusion Equation in One Dimension
3.2 Atomistic Models of Diffusion
3.3 Analytic Solutions of Fick's Law
3.4 Diffusion Coefficients for Common Dopants
3.5 Analysis of Diffused Profiles
3.6 Diffusion in SiO
3.7 Simulations of Diffusion Profiles
3.8 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 4. Thermal Oxidation
4.1 The Deal-Grove Model of Oxidation
4.2 The Linear and Parabolic Rate Coefficients
4.3 The Initial Oxidation Regime
4.4 The Structure of SiO2
4.5 Oxide Characterization
4.6 The Effects of Dopants During Oxidation and Polysilicon Oxidation
4.7 Silicon Oxynitrides
4.8 Alternative Gate Insulators**
4.9 Oxidation Systems
4.10 Numeric Oxidations**
4.11 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 5. Ion Implantation
5.1 Idealized Ion Implantation Systems
5.2 Coulomb Scattering*
5.3 Vertical Projected Range
5.4 Channeling and Lateral Projected Range
5.5 Implantation Damage
5.6 Shallow Junction Formation**
5.7 Buried Dielectrics**
5.8 Ion Implantation Systems: Problems and Concerns
5.9 Numerical Implanted Profiles**
5.10 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 6. Rapid Thermal Processing
6.1 Gray Body Radiation, Heat Exchange, and Optical Absorption
6.2 High Intensity Optical Sources and Chamber Design
6.3 Temperature Measurement
6.4 Thermoplastic Stress*
6.5 Rapid Thermal Activation of Impurities
6.6 Rapid Thermal Processing of Dielectrics
6.7 Silicidation and Contact Formation
6.8 Alternative Rapid Thermal Processing Systems
6.9 Summary
Problems
References

PART III. UNIT PROCESSES 2: PATTERN TRANSFER

Chapter 7. Optical Lithography
7.1 Lithography Overview
7.2 Diffraction*
7.3 The Modulation Transfer Function and Optical Exposures
7.4 Source Systems and Spatial Coherence
7.5 Contact/Proximity Printers
7.6 Projection Printers
7.7 Advanced Mask Concepts**
7.8 Surface Reflections and Standing Waves
7.9 Alignment
7.10 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 8. Photoresists
8.1 Photoresist Types
8.2 Organic Materials and Polymers*
8.3 Typical Reactions of DQN Positive Photoresist
8.4 Contrast Curves
8.5 The Critical Modulation Transfer Function
8.6 Applying and Developing Photoresist
8.7 Second-Order Exposure Effects
8.8 Advanced Photoresists and Photoresist Processes**
8.9 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 9. Nonoptical Lithographic Techniques**
9.1 Interactions of High Energy Beams with Matter*
9.2 Direct-Write Electron Beam Lithography Systems
9.3 Direct-Write Electron Beam Lithography: Summary and Outlook
9.4 X-ray and EUV Sources*
9.5 Proximity X-ray Exposure Systems
9.6 Membrane Masks for Proximity X-ray
9.7 EUV Lithography
9.8 Projection Electron Beam Lithography (SCALPEL)
9.9 E-beam and X-ray Resists
9.10 Radiation Damage in MOS Devices
9.11 Soft Lithography and Nanoimprint Lithography
9.12 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 10. Vacuum Science and Plasmas
10.1 The Kinetic Theory of Gases*
10.2 Gas Flow and Conductance
10.3 Pressure Ranges and Vacuum Pumps
10.4 Vacuum Seals and Pressure Measurement
10.5 The DC Glow Discharge*
10.6 RF Discharges
10.7 High Density Plasmas
10.8 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 11. Etching
11.1 Wet Etching
11.2 Chemical Mechanical Polishing
11.3 Basic Regimes of Plasma Etching
11.4 High Pressure Plasma Etching
11.5 Ion Milling
11.6 Reactive Ion Etching
11.7 Damage in Reactive Ion Etching**
11.8 High Density Plasma (HDP) Etching
11.9 Liftoff
11.10 Summary
Problems
References

PART IV. UNIT PROCESSES 3: THIN FILMS

Chapter 12. Physical Deposition: Evaporation and Sputtering
12.1 Phase Diagrams: Sublimation and Evaporation*
12.2 Deposition Rates
12.3 Step Coverage
12.4 Evaporator Systems: Crucible Heating Techniques
12.5 Multicomponent Films
12.6 An Introduction to Sputtering
12.7 Physics of Sputtering*
12.8 Deposition Rate: Sputter Yield
12.9 High Density Plasma Sputtering
12.10 Morphology and Step Coverage
12.11 Sputtering Methods
12.12 Sputtering of Specific Materials
12.13 Stress in Deposited Layers
12.14 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 13. Chemical Vapor Deposition
13.1 A Simple CVD System for the Deposition of Silicon
13.2 Chemical Equilibrium and the Law of Mass Action*
13.3 Gas Flow and Boundary Layers*
13.4 Evaluation of the Simple CVD System
13.5 Atmospheric CVD of Dielectrics
13.6 Low Pressure CVD of Dielectrics and Semiconductors in Hot Wall Systems
13.7 Plasma-enhanced CVD of Dielectrics
13.8 Metal CVD**
13.9 Atomic Layer Deposition
13.10 Electroplating Copper
13.11 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 14. Epitaxial Growth
14.1 Wafer Cleaning and Native Oxide Removal
14.2 The Thermodynamics of Vapor Phase Growth
14.3 Surface Reactions
14.4 Dopant Incorporation
14.5 Defects in Epitaxial Growth
14.6 Selective Growth*
14.7 Halide Transport GaAs Vapor Phase Epitaxy
14.8 Incommensurate and Strained Layer Heteroepitaxy
14.9 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD)
14.10 Advanced Silicon Vapor Phase Epitaxial Growth Techniques
14.11 Molecular Beam Epitaxy Technology
14.12 BCF Theory**
14.13 Gas Source MBE and Chemical Beam Epitaxy**
14.14 Summary
Problems
References

PART V. PROCESS INTEGRATION

Chapter 15. Device Isolation, Contacts, and Metallization
15.1 Junction and Oxide Isolation
15.2 LOCOS Methods
15.3 Trench Isolation
15.4 Silicon-on-Insulator Isolation Techniques
15.5 Semi-insulating Substrates
15.6 Schottky Contacts
15.7 Implanted Ohmic Contacts
15.8 Alloyed Contacts
15.9 Multilevel Metallization
15.10 Planarization and Advanced Interconnect
15.11 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 16. CMOS Technologies
16.1 Basic Long-Channel Device Behavior
16.2 Early MOS Technologies
16.3 The Basic 3-µm Technology
16.4 Device Scaling
16.5 Hot Carrier Effects and Drain Engineering
16.6 Latchup
16.7 Shallow Source/Drains and Tailored Channel Doping
16.8 The Universal Curve and Advanced CMOS
16.9 A Nanoscale CMOS Process
16.10 Nonplanar CMOS
16.11 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 17. Other Transistor Technologies
17.1 Basic MESFET Operation
17.2 Basic MESFET Technology
17.3 Digital Technologies
17.4 MMIC Technologies
17.5 MODFETs
17.6 Review of Bipolar Devices: Ideal and Quasi-ideal Behavior
17.7 Performance of BJTs
17.8 Early Bipolar Processes
17.9 Advanced Bipolar Processes
17.10 BiCMOS
17.11 Thin Film Transistors
17.12 Summary
Problems
References

Chapter 18. Optoelectronic and Solar Technologies
18.1 Optoelectronic Devices Overview
18.2 Direct-Gap Inorganic LEDs
18.3 Polymer/Organic Light-Emitting Diodes
18.4 Lasers
18.5 Photovoltaic Devices Overview
18.6 Silicon Based Photovoltaic Device Fabrication
18.7 Other Photovoltaic Technologies
18.8 Summary
References

Chapter 19. MEMS
19.1 Fundamentals of Mechanics
19.2 Stress in Thin Films
19.3 Mechanical-to-Electrical Transduction
19.4 Mechanics of Common MEMS Devices
19.5 Bulk Micromachining Etching Techniques
19.6 Bulk Micromachining Process Flow
19.7 Surface Micromachining Basics
19.8 Surface Micromachining Process Flow
19.9 MEMS Actuators
19.10 High Aspect Ratio Microsystems Technology (HARMST)
19.11 Microfluidics
19.12 Summary
Problems
References

Appendix I. Acronyms and Common Symbols
Appendix II. Properties of Selected Semiconductor Materials
Appendix III. Physical Constants
Appendix IV. Conversion Factors
Appendix V. Some Properties of the Error Function
Appendix VI. F Values
Index