Foundations of Behavioral Research

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ISBN: 9780155078970 | 0155078976
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 8/9/1999

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This text examines the fundamentals of solving a scientific research problem, focusing on the relationship between the problem and the research design. This edition includes new information about computer statistical software, multivariate statistics, research ethics, and writing research reports in APA style. This book is ideal for graduate students in that it covers statistics, research methodology, and measurement all in one volume. This is a book that graduate students will keep as a reference throughout their careers.

Part One The Language and Approach of Science

(62)

Science and the Scientific Approach

(20)

Science and Common Sense

(2)

Four Methods of Knowing

(2)

Science and Its Functions

(3)

The Aims of Science, Scientific Explanation, and Theory

(3)

Scientific Research: A Definition

(1)

The Scientific Approach

(4)

Problem-Obstacle-Idea

(1)

Hypothesis

(1)

Reasoning-Deduction

(2)

Observation-Test-Experiment

(2)

Chapter Summary

(1)

Study Suggestions

(3)

Problems and Hypotheses

(18)

Problems

(1)

Criteria of Problems and Problem Statements

(1)

Hypotheses

(1)

The Importance of Problems and Hypotheses

(1)

Virtues of Problems and Hypotheses

(2)

Problems, Values, and Definitions

(1)

Generality and Specificity of Problems and Hypotheses

(1)

The Multivariable Nature of Behavioral Research and Problems

(1)

Concluding Remarks: The Special Power of Hypotheses

(1)

Chapter Summary

(1)

Study Suggestions

(6)

Constructs, Variables, and Definitions

(22)

Concepts and Constructs

(1)

Variables

(1)

Constitutive and Operational Definitions of Constructs and Variables

(5)

Types of Variables

(6)

Independent and Dependent Variables

(5)

Active and Attribute Variables

(1)

Continuous and Categorical Variables

(2)

Constructs, Observables, and Latent Variables

(1)

Examples of Variations and Operational Definitions

(4)

Chapter Summary

(1)

Study Suggestions

(1)

Part Two Sets, Relations, and Variance

(68)

Sets

(16)

Subsets

(1)

Set Operations

(1)

The Universal and Empty Sets; Set Negation

(1)

Set Diagrams

(1)

Set Operations with More Than Two Sets

(1)

Partitions and Cross Partitions

(3)

Levels of Discourse

(3)

Chapter Summary

(1)

Study Suggestions

(3)

Relations

(22)

Relations as Sets of Ordered Pairs

(3)

Determining Relations in Research

(2)

Rules of Correspondence and Mapping

(1)

Some Ways to Study Relations

(10)

Graphs

(1)

Tables

(4)

Graphs and Correlation

(3)

Research Examples

(3)

Multivariate Relations and Regression

(3)

Some Logic of Multivariate Inquiry

(2)

Multiple Relations and Regression

100

(1)

Chapter Summary

101

(1)

Study Suggestions

101

(2)

Variance and Covariance

103

(28)

Calculation of Means and Variances

104

(2)

Kinds of Variance

106

(4)

Population and Sample Variances

106

(1)

Systematic Variance

107

(1)

Between-Groups (Experimental) Variance

107

(3)

Error Variance

110

(7)

An Example of Systematic and Error Variance

111

(3)

A Subtractive Demonstration: Removing Between-Groups Variance from Total Variance

114

(3)

A Recap of Removing Between-Group Variance from Total Variance

117

(1)

Components of Variance

118

(1)

Covariance

119

(9)

The Computer Addendum

122

(6)

Chapter Summary

128

(1)

Study Suggestions

129

(2)

Part Three Probability, Randomness, and Sampling

131

(58)

Probability

133

(30)

Definition of Probability

134

(1)

Sample Space, Sample Points, and Events

135

(3)

Determining Probabilities with Coins

138

(1)

An Experiment with Dice

139

(2)

Some Formal Theory

141

(2)

Compound Events and Their Probabilities

143

(2)

Independence, Mutual Exclusiveness, and Exhaustiveness

145

(5)

Conditional Probability

150

(8)

Definition of Conditional Probability

150

(2)

An Academic Example

152

(3)

Bayes' Theorem: Revising Probabilities

155

(1)

Example

156

(2)

Chapter Summary

158

(1)

Study Suggestions

159

(4)

Sampling and Randomness

163

(26)

Sampling, Random Sampling, and Representativeness

164

(3)

Randomness

167

(2)

An Example of Random Sampling

167

(2)

Randomization

169

(6)

A Senatorial Randomization Demonstration

171

(4)

Sample Size

175

(8)

Kinds of Samples

178

(4)

Some Books on Sampling

182

(1)

Chapter Summary

183

(1)

Study Suggestions

183

(6)

Computer Program Listing to Generate Table 8.2

186

(3)

Part Four Analysis, Interpretation, Statistics, and Inference

189

(116)

Principles of Analysis and Interpretation

191

(30)

Frequencies and Continuous

193

(1)

Rules of Categorization

194

(4)

Kinds of Statistical Analysis

198

(13)

Frequency Distributions

199

(1)

Graphs and Graphing

200

(2)

Measures of Central Tendency and Variability

202

(1)

Measures of Relations

203

(1)

Analysis of Differences

204

(1)

Analysis of Variance and Related Methods

205

(2)

Profile Analysis

207

(1)

Multivariate Analysis

208

(3)

Indices

211

(2)

Social Indicators

213

(1)

The Interpretation of Research Data

214

(5)

Adequacy of Research Design, Methodology, Measurement, and Analysis

215

(1)

Negative and Inconclusive Results

216

(1)

Unhypothesized Relations and Unanticipated Findings

216

(2)

Proof, Probability, and Interpretation

218

(1)

Chapter Summary

219

(1)

Study Suggestions

219

(2)

The Analysis of Frequencies

221

(36)

Data and Variable Terminology

223

(1)

Crosstabs: Definitions and Purpose

224

(1)

Simple Crosstabs and Rules for Crosstab Construction

225

(2)

Calculation of Percentages

227

(2)

Statistical Significance and the X2 Test

229

(3)

Levels of Statistical Significance

232

(4)

Types of Crosstabs and Tables

236

(5)

One-Dimensional Tables

236

(1)

Two-Dimensional Tables

237

(3)

Two-Dimensional Tables, ``True'' Dichotomies, and Continuous Measures

240

(1)

Three- and k-Dimensional Tables

240

(1)

Specification

241

(2)

Crosstabulations, Relations, and Ordered Pairs

243

(10)

The Odds Ratio

246

(1)

Multivariate Analysis of Frequency Data

247

(1)

Computer Addendum

248

(5)

Chapter Summary

253

(1)

Study Suggestions

254

(3)

Statistics: Purpose, Approach, Method

257

(18)

The Basic Approach

257

(1)

Definition and Purpose of Statistics

258

(2)

Binomial Statistics

260

(2)

The Variance

262

(2)

The Law of Large Numbers

264

(1)

The Normal Probability Curve and the Standard Deviation

265

(3)

Interpretation of Data Using the Normal Probability Curve-Frequency Data

268

(1)

Interpretation of Data Using the Normal Probability Curve-Continuous Data

269

(3)

Chapter Summary

272

(1)

Study Suggestions

273

(2)

Testing Hypotheses and the Standard Error

275

(30)

Examples: Differences Between Means

276

(1)

Absolute and Relative Differences

277

(1)

Correlation Coefficients

278

(1)

Hypothesis Testing: Substantive and Null Hypotheses

279

(3)

The General Nature of a Standard Error

282

(1)

A Monte Carlo Demonstration

283

(7)

The Procedure

283

(2)

Generalizations

285

(1)

The Central Limit Theorem

286

(1)

The Standard Error of the Differences between Means

287

(3)

Statistical Inference

290

(5)

Testing Hypotheses and the Two Types of Errors

291

(4)

The Five Steps of Hypothesis Testing

295

(4)

Sample Size Determination

295

(2)

Example

297

(2)

Chapter Summary

299

(1)

Study Suggestions

300

(5)

Part Five Analysis of Variance

305

(130)

Analysis of Variance: Foundations

307

(38)

Variance Breakdown: A Simple Example

308

(4)

The t-Ratio Approach

312

(1)

The Analysis of Variance Approach

313

(2)

An Example of a Statistically Significant Difference

315

(2)

Calculation of One-Way Analysis of Variance

317

(4)

A Research Example

321

(1)

Strength of Relations: Correlation and the Analysis of Variance

322

(5)

Broadening the Structure: Post Hoc Tests and Planned Comparisons

327

(4)

Post Hoc Tests

328

(1)

Planned Comparisons

328

(3)

Computer Addendum

331

(9)

t-Ratio or t-Test on SPSS

331

(5)

One-Way ANOVA on SPSS

336

(4)

Addendum

340

(1)

Chapter Summary

340

(1)

Study Suggestions

341

(4)

Factorial Analysis of Variance

345

(42)

Two Research Examples

346

(4)

The Nature of Factorial Analysis of Variance

350

(2)

The Meaning of Interaction

352

(1)

A Simple Fictitious Example

352

(7)

Interaction: An Example

359

(3)

Kinds of Interaction

362

(3)

Notes of Caution

365

(2)

Interaction and Interpretation

367

(1)

Factorial Analysis of Variance with Three or More Variables

368

(3)

Advantages and Virtues of Factorial Design and Analysis of Variance

371

(1)

Factorial Analysis of Variance: Control

372

(2)

Research Examples

374

(3)

Race, Sex, and College Admissions

374

(1)

The Effect of Gender, Type of Rape, and Information on Perception

375

(1)

Student Essays and Teacher Evaluation

376

(1)

Computer Addendum

377

(7)

Chapter Summary

384

(1)

Study Suggestions

385

(2)

Analysis of Variance: Correlated Groups

387

(26)

Definition of the Problem

388

(1)

A Fictitious Example

389

(8)

An Explanatory Digression

390

(3)

Reexamination of Table 15.2 Data

393

(1)

Further Considerations

394

(3)

Extracting Variances by Subtraction

397

(6)

Removal of Systematic Sources of Variance

398

(2)

Additional Correlated Analysis of Variance Designs

400

(3)

Research Examples

403

(6)

Ironic Effects of Trying to Relax Under Stress

403

(1)

Learning Sets of Isopods

403

(2)

Business: Bidding Behavior

405

(1)

Computer Addendum

406

(3)

Chapter Summary

409

(1)

Study Suggestions

409

(4)

Nonparametric Analysis of Variance and Related Statistics

413

(22)

Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics

414

(4)

Assumption of Normality

415

(1)

Homogeneity of Variance

416

(1)

Continuity and Equal Intervals of Measures

416

(1)

Independence of Observations

417

(1)

Nonparametric Analysis of Variance

418

(6)

One-Way Analysis of Variance: The Kruskal-Wallis Test

418

(2)

Two-Way Analysis of Variance: The Friedman Test

420

(3)

The Coefficient of Concordance, W

423

(1)

Properties of Nonparametric Methods

424

(1)

Computer Addendum

425

(6)

The Kruskal-Wallis Test on SPSS

425

(5)

The Friedman Test on SPSS

430

(1)

Chapter Summary

431

(1)

Study Suggestions

431

(4)

Part Six Designs of Research

435

(98)

Ethical Considerations in Conducting Behavioral Science Research

437

(12)

Fiction and Reality

437

(10)

A Beginning?

439

(3)

Some General Guidelines

442

(1)

Guidelines from the American Psychological Association

443

(1)

General Considerations

443

(1)

The Participant at Minimal Risk

443

(1)

Fairness, Responsibility, and Informed Consent

444

(1)

Deception

444

(1)

Debriefing

444

(1)

Freedom from Coercion

445

(1)

Protection of Participants

445

(1)

Confidentiality

445

(1)

Ethics of Animal Research

446

(1)

Chapter Summary

447

(1)

Study Suggestions

448

(1)

Research Design: Purpose and Principles

449

(16)

Purposes of Research Design

450

(5)

An Example

451

(1)

A Stronger Design

452

(3)

Research Designs as Variance Control

455

(4)

A Controversial Example

456

(3)

Maximization of Experimental Variance

459

(1)

Control of Extraneous Variables

460

(2)

Minimization of Error Variance

462

(1)

Chapter Summary

463

(1)

Study Suggestions

464

(1)

Inadequate Designs and Design Criteria

465

(16)

Experimental and Nonexperimental Approaches

466

(1)

Symbolism and Definitions

467

(1)

Faulty Designs

468

(4)

Measurement, History, Maturation

470

(1)

The Regression Effect

470

(2)

Criteria of Research Design

472

(6)

Answer Research Questions?

472

(1)

Control of Extraneous Independent Variables

473

(1)

Generalizability

474

(1)

Internal and External Validity

475

(3)

Chapter Summary

478

(1)

Study Suggestions

479

(2)

General Designs of Research

481

(20)

Conceptual Foundations of Research Design

482

(2)

A Preliminary Note: Experimental Designs and Analysis of Variance

484

(1)

The Designs

485

(8)

The Notion of the Control Group and Extensions of Design 20.1

486

(3)

Matching versus Randomization

489

(1)

Matching by Equating Participants

490

(1)

The Frequency Distribution Matching Method

491

(1)

Matching by Holding Variables Constant

492

(1)

Matching by Incorporating the Nuisance Variable Into the Research Design

492

(1)

Participant as Own Control

493

(1)

Additional Design Extensions: Design 20.3 Using a Pretest

493

(2)

Difference Scores

495

(4)

Chapter Summary

499

(1)

Study Suggestions

500

(1)

Research Design Applications: Randomized Groups and Correlated Groups

501

(32)

Simple Randomized Subjects Design

502

(2)

A Research Example

502

(1)

Fear-then-Relief and Compliance

502

(2)

Dolinski

Nawrat

Factorial Designs

504

(6)

Factorial Designs with More than Two Variables

505

(1)

Research Examples of Factorial Designs

505

(1)

Attractiveness and Crime

506

(1)

Sigall

Ostrove

Examples, Schema and Learning

506

(1)

Quilici

Mayer

Example 1

507

(1)

Example 2

507

(1)

Example 3

507

(1)

Example 4

507

(1)

Teacher Knowledge and Pupil Achievement

508

(2)

Hoyt

Evaluation of Randomized Subjects Designs

510

(1)

Correlated Groups

511

(4)

The General Paradigm

512

(1)

Units

513

(1)

One Group Repeated Trials Design

513

(1)

Two groups, Experimental Group-Control Group Designs

514

(1)

Research Examples of Correlated Group Designs

515

(4)

Learning of Autonomic Functions

516

(2)

Miller

DiCara

Effects of Practice on Selective-Attention

518

(1)

Tipper

Eissenberg

Weaver

Multigroup Correlated Groups Designs

519

(1)

Units Variance

519

(1)

Factorial Correlated Groups

520

(3)

Revolutionary Leaders and Conceptual Complexity

521

(1)

Suedfeld

Rank

Offer of Help and Willingness to Seek Support

522

(1)

Perrine

Lisle

Tucker

Analysis of Covariance

523

(2)

Massive Reinforcement and Reading Achievement

524

(1)

Clark

Walberg

Research Design and Analysis: Concluding Remarks

525

(1)

Computer Addendum

526

(2)

Chapter Summary

528

(1)

Study Suggestions

529

(4)

Part Seven Types of Research

533

(88)

Quasi-Experimental and N = 1 Designs of Research

535

(22)

Compromise Designs a.k.a. Quasi Experimental Designs

536

(14)

Nonequivalent Control Group Design

536

(1)

No-Treatment Control Group Design

537

(6)

Research Examples

543

(1)

Nonequivalent Control Group Design

543

(1)

Nelson

Hall

Walsh-Bowers

Quasi-Experiment

543

(1)

Chapman

McCauley

Time Designs

544

(2)

Multiple Time Series Design

546

(1)

Single Subject Experimental Designs

546

(2)

Some Advantages of Doing Single-Subject Studies

548

(1)

Some Disadvantages of Using Single-Subject Designs

549

(1)

Some Single-Subject Research Paradigms

550

(4)

The Stable Baseline: An Important Goal

550

(1)

Designs that Use the Withdrawal of Treatment

550

(1)

The ABA Design

550

(1)

Repeating Treatments (ABAB Designs)

551

(1)

A Research Example

552

(1)

Example of an ABAB Design

552

(1)

Powell

Nelson

Using Multiple Baselines

553

(1)

Chapter Summary

554

(1)

Study Suggestions

555

(2)

Nonexperimental Research

557

(18)

Definition

558

(1)

Basic Difference Between Experimental and Nonexperimental Research

558

(2)

Self-Selection and Nonexperimental Research

560

(1)

Large-Scale Nonexperimental Research

561

(3)

Determinants of School Achievement

562

(1)

Response Style Differences between East Asian and North American Students

563

(1)

Smaller Scale Nonexperimental Research

564

(2)

Sex, Lies, and HIV

564

(1)

Cochran

Mays

Impaired Reading and Written Language in Attention Deficit Children

565

(1)

Elbert

Testing Alternative Hypotheses

566

(2)

Evaluation of Nonexperimental Research

568

(2)

The Limitations of Nonexperimental Interpretation

568

(1)

The Value of Nonexperimental Research

569

(1)

Conclusions

570

(1)

Chapter Summary

571

(1)

Study Suggestions

571

(4)

Laboratory Experiments, Field Experiments, and Field Studies

575

(24)

A Laboratory Experiment: Miller Studies of the Learning of Visceral Responses

576

(1)

A Field Experiment: Rind and Bordia's Study on the Effects of a Server's ``Thank You'' and Personalization on Restaurant Tipping

577

(16)

A Field Study: Newcomb's Bennington College Study

578

(1)

Characteristics and Criteria of Laboratory Experiments, Field Experiments, and Field Studies

579

(1)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Laboratory Experiments

579

(2)

Purposes of the Laboratory Experiment

581

(1)

The Field Experiment

581

(1)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies

582

(3)

Field Studies

585

(1)

Types of Field Studies

586

(1)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies

586

(2)

Qualitative Research

588

(5)

Addendum

593

(2)

The Holistic Experimental Paradigm

593

(2)

Chapter Summary

595

(1)

Study Suggestions

596

(3)

Survey Research

599

(22)

Types of Surveys

601

(3)

Interviews and Schedules

601

(2)

Other Types of Survey Research

603

(1)

The Methodology of Survey Research

604

(7)

Checking Survey Data

607

(1)

Three Studies

608

(1)

Political Participation in America

608

(1)

Verba

Nie

A Survey of Male Cross-Dressers

609

(1)

Doctoer

Prince

Community Health Services for Ethnic Minorities

610

(1)

Sue

Fujino

Takeuchi

Zane

Applications of Survey Research to Education

611

(2)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Research

613

(5)

Meta-Analysis

614

(4)

Chapter Summary

618

(1)

Study Suggestions

619

(2)

Part Eight Measurement

621

(68)

Foundations of Measurement

623

(18)

Definition of Measurement

625

(2)

Measurement and ``Reality'' Isomorphism

627

(2)

Properties, Constructs, and Indicants of Objects

629

(1)

Levels of Measurement and Scaling

630

(5)

Classification and Enumeration

631

(1)

Nominal Measurement

632

(1)

Ordinal Measurement

632

(2)

Interval Measurement (Scales)

634

(1)

Ratio Measurement (Scales)

635

(1)

Comparisons of Scales: Practical Considerations and Statistics

635

(3)

Chapter Summary

638

(1)

Study Suggestions

639

(2)

Reliability

641

(24)

Definitions of Realibility

642

(3)

Theory of Reliability

645

(7)

Two Computational Examples

648

(4)

The Interpretation of the Reliability Coeficient

652

(5)

The Standard Error of the Mean and the Standard Error of Measurement

657

(2)

The Improvement of Realiability

659

(3)

The Value of Reliability

662

(1)

Chapter Summary

663

(1)

Study Suggestions

664

(1)

Validity

665

(24)

Types of Validity

666

(14)

Content Validity and Content Validation

667

(1)

Criterion-Related Validity and Validation

668

(1)

Decision Aspects of Validity

669

(1)

Multiple Predictors and Criteria

670

(1)

Construct Validity and Construct Validation

670

(1)

Convergence and Discriminability

671

(1)

A Hypothetical Example of Construct Validation

672

(2)

The Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix Method

674

(2)

Research Examples of Concurrent Validation

676

(1)

Research Examples of Construct Validation

676

(1)

A Measure of Anti-Semitism

677

(1)

A Measure of Personality

677

(1)

The Measurement of Democracy

678

(1)

Other Methods of Construct Validation

679

(1)

A Variance Definition of Validity: The Variance Relation of Reliability and Validity

680

(5)

Statistical Relation between Reliability and Validity

684

(1)

The Validity and Reliability of Psychological and Educational Measurement Instruments

685

(1)

Chapter Summary

685

(1)

Study Suggestions

686

(3)

Part Nine Methods of Observation and Data Collection

689

(64)

Interviews and Interview Schedules

691

(16)

Interviews and Schedules as Tools of Science

693

(1)

The Interview

693

(1)

The Interview Schedule

694

(5)

Kinds of Schedule Information and Items

694

(1)

Fixed-Alternative Items

695

(1)

Example

695

(1)

Open-Ended Items

695

(1)

Example

696

(1)

Scale Items

696

(1)

Criteria of Question-Writing

697

(2)

The Value of Interviews and Interview Schedules

699

(3)

The Focus Group and Group Interviewing: Another Interviewing Method

700

(1)

Some Examples of Focus Group Research

701

(1)

Chapter Summary

702

(1)

Study Suggestions

703

(4)

Classical Works

703

(1)

More Recent Works

703

(1)

``Normal'' Studies

704

(3)

Objective Tests and Scales

707

(20)

Objectivity and Objective Methods of Observation

708

(1)

Tests and Scales: Definitions

709

(7)

Types of Objective Measures

709

(1)

Intelligence and Aptitude Tests

709

(1)

Achievement Tests

710

(1)

Personality Measures

711

(1)

Attitude Scales

712

(3)

Value Scales

715

(1)

Types of Objective Scales and Items

716

(7)

Examples

716

(1)

Agreement-Disagreement Items

717

(1)

Rank Order Items and Scales

718

(1)

Forced-Choice Items and Scales

719

(2)

Ipsative and Normative Measures

721

(2)

Choice and Construction of Objective Measures

723

(1)

Chapter Summary

724

(1)

Study Suggestions

725

(2)

Observations of Behavior and Sociometry

727

(26)

Problems in Observing Behavior

728

(8)

The Observer

728

(1)

Validity and Reliability

729

(2)

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Foundations of Behavioral Research

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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Foundations of Behavioral Research

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

Digital License