Foundations of Chemistry An Introductory Course for Science Students
, by Cranwell, Philippa B.; Page, Elizabeth M.
- ISBN: 9781119513872 | 1119513871
- Cover: Paperback
- Copyright: 8/2/2021
FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY
A foundation-level guide to chemistry for physical, life sciences and engineering students
Foundations of Chemistry: An Introductory Course for Science Students fills a gap in the literature to provide a basic chemistry text aimed at physical sciences, life sciences and engineering students. The authors, noted experts on the topic, offer concise explanations of chemistry theory and the principles that are typically reviewed in most one year foundation chemistry courses and first year degree-level chemistry courses for non-chemists.
The authors also include illustrative examples and information on the most recent applications in the field. Foundations of Chemistry is an important text that outlines the basic principles in each area of chemistry - physical, inorganic and organic - building on prior knowledge to quickly expand and develop a student's knowledge and understanding.
Key features include:
- Worked examples showcase core concepts and practice questions.
- Margin comments signpost students to knowledge covered elsewhere and are used to highlight key learning objectives.
- Chapter summaries list the main concepts and learning points.
Philippa B. Cranwell is an Associate Professor of Organic Chemistry at the University of Reading. She has extensive experience of teaching students chemistry, ranging from A-level to Foundation level and higher. She has co-authored several texts relating to both practical and theoretical organic chemistry. She actively undertakes research in the field of chemistry education and regularly publishes her work. She was awarded a University of Reading Teaching Fellowship in 2016 for her contribution to teaching and learning.
Elizabeth M. Page is Emeritus Professor of Chemistry Education at the University of Reading. She has over 30 years experience of teaching chemistry at Foundation level and higher. She is author of several text books for life-sciences and chemistry students. Elizabeth has been an examiner for A level chemistry and helped in the design of the revised A level specifications in chemistry. During her time at Reading she established a strong network of chemistry teachers, providing a forum for discussions and guidance in teaching GCSE and A level chemistry. Elizabeth was awarded the Royal Society of Chemistry Education prize for her work with chemistry teachers and is a National and University of Reading Teaching Fellow.
Chapter 0: Fundamentals
0.1 Measurement in chemistry and science – SI units
0.2 Expressing large and small numbers using scientific notation
0.3 Using metric prefixes
0.3.1 Units of mass and volume used in chemistry
0.4 Significant figures
0.5 Calculations using scientific notation
0.5.1 Adding and subtracting
0.5.2 Multiplying and dividing numbers
0.6 Writing chemical formulae and equations
0.6.1 Writing chemical formulae
0.6.2 Writing and balancing chemical equations
0.6.3 Indicating the physical state of reactants and products in chemical equations
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Chapter 1: Atomic Structure
1.1 Atomic Structure
1.1.1 Atomic particles
1.1.2 Mass number (A) and atomic number (Z)
1.1.3 Isotopes
1.1.4 Radioisotopes
1.2 Electronic Structure
1.2.1 The periodic table
1.2.2 Electron energy levels
1.2.3 Simple electronic configurations
1.2.4 Sub-shells and atomic orbitals
1.2.5 Describing electronic configurations
1.2.6 Electronic structures and the periodic table
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Chapter 2: Chemical Bonding
2.1 Bonding
2.1.1 Atoms and molecules
2.1.2 Metallic bonding
2.1.3 Ionic bonding
2.1.4 Covalent bonding
2.2 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
2.2.1 Two electron centres around the central atom: linear molecules
2.2.2 Three electron centres around the central atom: trigonal planar molecules
2.2.3 Four electron centres around the central atom: tetrahedral, pyramidal, bent molecules
2.2.4 Five electron centres around the central atom: trigonal bipyramidal molecules
2.2.5 Six electron centres around the central atom: octahedral molecules
2.3 Polar bonds and polar molecules
2.3.1 Electronegativity
2.3.2 Polar bonds
2.3.3 Polar molecules
2.4 Intermolecular forces
2.4.1 Permanent dipole–permanent dipole interactions
2.4.2 London dispersion forces (instantaneous dipole–induced dipole)
2.4.3 Hydrogen bonding
2.4.4 Summary of strengths of intermolecular forces
2.4.5 A special case: ion-dipole intermolecular forces
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Chapter 3 Masses of atoms, molecules and reacting substances
3.1 Masses of atoms and molecules
3.1.1 Relative atomic mass, Ar
3.1.2 Relative molecular mass, Mr
3.1.3 Relative formula mass
3.2 Amount of substance
3.2.1 The mole
3.2.2 Converting between moles and masses of substances – Molar mass
3.3 Calculations with moles
3.3.1 Reacting masses
3.3.2 Percentage yield
3.3.3 Percentage composition by mass
3.3.4 Empirical Formula
3.4 Solutions; concentrations and dilutions
3.4.1 Measuring and expressing concentrations
3.4.2 Solutions and dilutions
3.4.3 Alternative units of concentration
3.5 Titration calculations
3.6 Calculations with gas volumes
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Chapter 4: States of Matter
Introduction
4.1 Solids
4.1.1 Metallic lattices
4.1.2 Ionic lattices
4.1.3 Simple molecular solids and giant molecular structures
4.2 Liquids
4.2.1 Evaporation and condensation, vapour pressure and boiling
4.2.2 Effect of intermolecular forces on melting and boiling points
4.3 Gases
4.3.1 Ideal gases
4.3.2 The ideal gas equation
4.3.3 The molar gas volume
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Chapter 5 Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions
5.1 Redox Reactions
5.1.1 Electron transfer in redox reactions
5.1.2 Oxidation numbers
5.1.3 Naming compounds based on the oxidation state of elements in the compound
5.1.4 Redox half-equations
5.1.5 Oxidising agents and reducing agents
5.2 Disproportionation Reactions
5.3 Redox titrations
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Chapter 6 Energy, Enthalpy and Entropy
6.1 Enthalpy Changes
6.1.1 Energy and enthalpy
6.1.2 Exothermic and endothermic reactions
6.1.3 Reaction pathway diagrams
6.1.4 Measuring enthalpy changes
6.1.5 Measuring enthalpy changes using calorimetry
6.1.6 Hess’s Law
6.1.7 Bond energies and enthalpy changes
6.1.8 Born–Haber cycles
6.1.9 Factors affecting the size of the lattice energy
6.2 Entropy and Gibbs Free Energy
6.2.1 Entropy
6.2.2 Spontaneous processes and the 2nd law of thermodynamics
6.2.3 Gibbs free energy and spontaneous reactions
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Chapter 7 Chemical Equilibrium and Acid-Base Equilibria
Introduction
7.1 Equilibria and reversible reactions
7.1.1 The equilibrium mixture and the equilibrium constant, Kc.
7.1.2 The effects of changing the reaction conditions at equilibrium
7.1.3 Heterogeneous and homogeneous equilibria
7.1.4 The equilibrium constant, Kp
7.2 Acid – base equilibria
7.2.1 The Brønsted–Lowry theory of acids and bases
7.2.2 The pH scale
7.2.3 Strong and weak acids and bases
7.2.4 The ionisation of water
7.2.5 Acid-base reactions
7.2.6 Carrying out a titration
7.2.7 Indicators
7.2.8 Acid-base titrations
7.2.9 Buffers
7.2.10 Calculating the pH of a buffer solution
7.2.11 Lewis acids and bases
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Chapter 8 Chemical Kinetics – The Rates of Chemical Reactions
Introduction
8.1 The rate of reaction
8.1.1 Defining the rate of a chemical reaction
8.1.2 Collision theory
8.1.3 Factors that affect the rate of a reaction
8.2 Determining the rate of a chemical reaction
8.2.1 Methods of monitoring the rate
8.2.2 The rate of reaction at any instant
8.2.3 An example of measuring rate of reaction at any time
8.3 The rate expression
8.3.1 Determining the rate expression using instantaneous rates
8.3.2 Determining the rate expression using the initial rates method
8.3.3 Determining the rate expression by inspection
8.3.4 Determining the rate expression using the integrated rate expression.
8.4 The half-life of a reaction
8.4.1 Half-life of first-order reactions
8.4.2 Half-life of zero-order reactions
8.4.3 Half-life of second-order reactions
8.5 Reaction mechanisms
8.5.1 Reaction mechanisms and the rate-determining step
8.5.2 Using the rate expression to determine the mechanism of a reaction
8.6 Effect of temperature on reaction rate
8.6.1 The distribution of the energies of molecules with temperature
8.6.2 The Arrhenius Equation
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Chapter 9 Electrochemistry
Introduction
9.1 Redox reactions – a reminder
9.2 Redox reactions and electrochemical cells
9.2.1 Electrochemical cells and half-cells
9.2.2 Standard electrode potentials, Eϴ
9.2.3 The standard hydrogen electrode
9.2.4 Values of standard reduction potentials
9.2.5 Half-cells involving non-metals and non-metal ions
9.2.6 The cell diagram
9.2.7 Using Eϴ values to obtain voltages of electrochemical cells
9.2.8 Using standard reduction potentials to predict the outcome of redox reactions
9.2.9 Relation between Eϴ and Gibbs energy
9.2.10 The effect of non-standard conditions on cell potential – the Nernst equation
9.3 Using redox reactions – Galvanic cells
9.3.1 Galvanic (voltaic) cells
9.3.2 The variety of cells
9.3.3 Disposable batteries
9.3.4 Rechargeable cells
9.3.5 Fuel cells
9.4 Using redox reactions – Electrolytic cells
9.4.1 Electrolysis
9.4.2 Electrolysis of molten substances
9.4.3 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
9.4.4 Calculating the amount of substance deposited during electrolysis
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Chapter 10: Group trends and periodicity
10.1 The Periodic Table: Periods, Groups and Periodicity
10.2 Trends in properties of elements in the same vertical group of the periodic table
10.2.1 Electron configuration
10.2.2 Effective nuclear charge, Zeff
10.2.3 Atomic radius
10.2.4 Ionisation energies
10.2.5 Electronegativity
10.3 Trends in properties of elements in the same horizontal period
10.3.1 Electron configuration
10.3.2 Atomic radius
10.3.3 Ionisation Energy
10.3.4 Electronegativity
10.3.5 Electron affinity , EAHϴ
10.3.6 Ionic radius
10.3.7 Melting Point and Boiling Point
10.3.8 Trends in chemical properties across a period
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Chapter 11: The Periodic Table – chemistry of Groups 1, 2, 7 and transition elements
Introduction
11.1 Group 1 – The Alkali Metals
11.1.1. Physical properties of Group 1 elements
11.1.2 Chemical properties of Group 1 elements
11.2 Group 2 – The Alkaline Earth Metals
11.2.1 Physical properties of Group 2 elements
11.2.2 Chemical properties of Group 2 elements
11.2.3 Some s block compounds and their properties
11.3 Group 7 (17) The Halogens
11.3.1 Physical properties of Group 7 (17) elements
11.3.2 Reactions of Group 7 elements
11.4 The Transition Elements
11.4.1 Physical properties of transition elements
11.4.2 Complexes of transition elements
11.4.3 Redox reactions
11.4.4 Origin of colour in transition metal complexes
11.4.5 Isomerism in coordination complexes
11.4.6 Ligand substitution in transition metal complexes
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Chapter 12: Core Concepts and Ideas Within Organic Chemistry
12.1 Types of molecular formula
12.1.1 Empirical and molecular formulae
12.1.2 Skeletal formula
12.1.3 Homologous series
12.2 Nomenclature of simple alkanes
12.2.1 Nomenclature for esters
12.3 Isomers
12.3.1 Chain Isomerism
12.3.2 Positional Isomerism
12.3.3 Functional Group Isomerism
12.3.4 Z and E Isomerism (alkenes only)
12.3.5 Chirality
12.3.6 Summary of Isomerism
12.4 Drawing Reaction Mechanisms
12.4.1 Types of arrows
12.4.2 Electrophiles, nucleophiles and radicals
12.5 Types of reaction
12.5.1 Electrophilic addition (to an alkene)
12.5.2 Nucleophilic addition (to a carbonyl group)
12.5.3 Electrophilic aromatic substitution
12.5.4 Nucleophilic substitution
12.5.5 Elimination
12.5.6 Condensation
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Chapter 13: Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes
13.1 Alkanes: an outline
13.1.1 Alkanes and crude oil
13.1.2 Combustion of alkanes
13.1.3 Cracking alkanes
13.1.4 Reactions of alkanes: radicals
13.2 Alkenes: an outline
13.2.1. Bonding in alkenes
13.2.2 Sigma (σ) bonding
13.2.3 Pi (π) bonding
13.2.4 Testing for alkenes
13.2.5 Reaction of alkenes with electrophiles
13.2.6 General reactions of alkenes
13.3 Alkynes: an outline
13.3.1 General reactions of alkynes
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Chapter 14: Reactivity of Selected Homologous Series
14.1 Alcohols
14.1.1 Primary alcohols
14.1.2 Secondary alcohols
14.1.3 Tertiary alcohols
14.1.4 Combustion of alcohols
14.1.5 Oxidation of alcohols
14.2 Aldehydes and ketones
14.2.1 Nucleophilic addition
14.2.2 Tests for aldehydes and ketones
14.3 Carboxylic acids
14.3.1 Preparation and properties of carboxylic acids
14.3.2 Deprotonation of carboxylic acids
14.3.3 Reduction of carboxylic acids
14.4 Esters
14.4.1 Preparation and properties of esters
14.4.2 Hydrolysis of esters
14.5 Amides
14.5.1 Preparation and properties of amides
14.5.2 Hydrolysis of amides
14.6 Amines
14.6.1 Naming amines
14.6.2 Amines as bases
14.6.3 Preparation of alkyl amines
14.7 Nitriles
14.7.1 Nitrile formation
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Chapter 15: The Chemistry of Aromatic Compounds
15.1 Benzene
15.1.1 The structure of benzene
15.1.2 Nomenclature
15.1.3 The reactivity of benzene
15.1.4 Resonance in benzene
15.1.5 Substituent effects on reactivity
15.2 Reactions of benzene with electrophiles
15.2.1 Halogenation
15.2.2 Friedel–Crafts alkylation
15.2.3 Friedel–Crafts acylation
15.2.4 Nitration
15.2.5 Substituent effects on position of substitution
15.2.6 Reaction of phenol with electrophiles
15.2.7 Reaction of toluene with electrophiles
15.2.8 Reaction of nitrobenzene with electrophiles
15.3 Aniline
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Chapter 16: Substitution and elimination reactions
16.1 Substitution reactions
16.1.1 SN1 reactions
16.1.2 SN2 reactions
16.2 Elimination reactions
16.2.1 E1 reactions
16.2.2 E2 reactions
16.2.3 Zaitsev and Hoffman alkenes
16.3 Comparison of substitution and elimination reactions
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Chapter 17: Bringing it all together
17.1 Functional group interconversion
17.2 Bringing it all together
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Chapter 18: Polymerisation
18.1 Polymerisation
18.1.1 Addition Polymerisation
18.1.2 LDPE and HDPE
18.1.3 Condensation Polymerisation
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Chapter 19: Spectroscopy
19.1 Mass Spectrometry
19.1.1 How a mass spectrometer works
19.1.2 Using the data from the mass spectrum
19.1.3 Mass spectrometry in organic chemistry
19.2 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR)
19.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)
19.3.1 The NMR spectrum
19.3.2 Confirming the identity of O–H and N–H peaks
19.4 Bringing it all together
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