Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Biomedical Applications

The book highlights established research and technology on current and emerging trends and biomedical applications of functionalized carbon nanotubes by providing academic researchers and scientists in industry, as well as high-tech start-ups, with knowledge of the modern practices that will revolutionize using functionalized carbon nanotubes.

Nanotechnology suggests fascinating opportunities for a variety of applications in biomedical fields, including bioimaging and targeted delivery of biomacromolecules into cells. Numerous strategies have been recommended to functionalize carbon nanotubes with raised solubility for efficient use in biomedical applications. Functionalized carbon nanotubes have unique arrangements and extravagant mechanical, thermal, magnetic, optical, electrical, surface, and chemical properties, and the combination of these features gives them widespread biomedical applications. Functionalized carbon nanotubes are relatively flexible and interact with the cell membranes and penetrate different biological tissues owing to a “snaking” effect, therefore both the pharmacological and toxicological profiles of functionalized carbon nanotubes have gathered much attention in recent times.

This book covers a broad range of topics relating to carbon nanotubes, from synthesis and functionalization to applications in advanced biomedical devices and systems. As they possess unique and attractive physical, chemical, optical, and even magnetic properties for various applications, considerable effort has been made to employ functionalized carbon nanotubes as new materials for the development of novel biomedical tools, such as diagnostic sensors, imaging agents, and drug/gene delivery systems for both diagnostics and clinical treatment.

Audience

The book is intended for a very broad audience of researchers and scientists working in the fields of nanomaterials, nanomedicine, bioinspired nanomaterials, nanotechnology, and biomedical application of nanomaterials.

Jeenat Aslam, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Taibah University, Yanbu, Al-Madina, Saudi Arabia. She obtained her PhD in Surface Science/Chemistry at the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. Her research is mainly focused on the materials & corrosion, nanotechnology and surface chemistry. Dr. Jeenat has published several research and review articles in peer-reviewed international journals and has edited 2 books and has contributed 20 book chapters.

Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an adjunct professor and director of laboratories in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Science at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, United States. His research is focused on the applications of nanotechnology and advanced materials, environmental management, analytical chemistry, and other various industries. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals as well as a prolific author and editor of around hundred books.

Ruby Aslam, PhD., is a research associate in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, India. She graduated with an M.Sc. in Chemistry at Aligarh Muslim University and presented her M.Phil. dissertation and PhD-thesis in Applied Chemistry, also at Aligarh Muslim University. She has published widely on corrosion inhibition and corrosion protective coatings.

Preface xv

Part 1: Overview of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 1

1 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: An Introduction 3
Sheerin Masroor

1.1 Introduction 4

1.2 Carbon Nanotube’s Classification 6

1.3 Structural and Morphological Analysis of Carbon Nanotubes 7

1.4 Synthetic Techniques of Carbon Nanotubes 8

1.5 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 9

1.6 Commercial Scale Use of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 12

1.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects 14

References 15

2 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis and Characterization 21
Neelam Sharma, Shubhra Pareek, Rahul Shrivastava and Debasis Behera

2.1 Introduction 22

2.2 Synthesis Methods 24

2.2.1 Arc Discharge 24

2.2.2 Laser Ablation 25

2.2.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition 26

2.3 Characterization 27

2.3.1 Raman Spectroscopy 27

2.3.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) 28

2.3.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 29

2.3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 29

2.3.5 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 30

2.3.6 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 31

2.3.7 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 32

2.4 Functionalized Routes of CNTs 33

2.4.1 Surface Oxidation 33

2.4.2 Doping Heteroatoms 33

2.4.3 Alkali Activation 33

2.4.4 Sulfonation 34

2.4.5 Halogenation 34

2.4.6 Grafting 34

2.4.6.1 Grafting via Oxygen-Containing Groups 35

2.4.6.2 Grafting via Diazonium Compounds 36

2.4.6.3 Other Grafting Methods 37

2.4.7 Non-Covalent Functionalization of CNTs 37

2.4.8 Deposition on Functionalized CNTs 37

2.4.9 Physiochemical Approaches 38

2.4.10 Electrochemical Deposition 38

2.4.11 Electroless Deposition 39

2.5 Conclusion 39

References 40

3 Carbon Nanotubes: Types of Functionalization 49
Manilal Murmu, Debanjan Dey, Naresh Chandra Murmu and Priyabrata Banerjee

3.1 Introduction 50

3.2 Carbon Nanotubes 50

3.3 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 52

3.3.1 Covalent Functionalization 52

3.3.2 Non-Covalent Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 58

3.3.2.1 Reversibility in Non-Covalent Functionalization 63

3.3.2.2 Solvent Variation in Non-Covalent Functionalization 64

3.3.3.3 pH of the System in Non-Covalent Functionalization 64

3.3.3.4 Temperature Responsive System in Non-Covalent Functionalization 65

3.4 Conclusion and Future Outlook 65

Acknowledgements 65

Web Links 66

References 66

4 Functionalization Carbon Nanotubes Innovate on Medical Technology 75
Afroz Aslam, Jeenat Aslam, Hilal Ahmad Parray and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain

4.1 Introduction 75

4.2 Functionalization CNTs for Biomedical Applications 78

4.3 Potential Applications of CNTs in Cancer Therapy 79

4.3.1 Anti-Tumor Immunotherapy 80

4.3.2 Anti-Tumor Hyperthermia Therapy 80

4.3.3 Anti-Tumor Chemotherapy 81

4.3.4 Other Cancer Treatment Strategies 82

4.4 Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders 82

4.5 Treatment of Infectious Diseases 84

4.6 CNTs-Based Transdermal Drug Delivery 85

4.7 f-CNTs for Vaccination 86

4.8 Application of f-CNTs in Tissue Engineering 86

4.9 Conclusion 88

Important Websites 89

References 89

Part 2: Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: Current and Emerging Biomedical Applications 95

5 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: Applications in Biosensing 97
N. Palaniappan, Nidhi Vashistha and Ruby Aslam

5.1 Introduction 97

5.2 CNTs-Based Biosensors 99

5.2.1 Electrochemical Biosensors 100

5.2.1.1 Electrochemical Enzyme Sensors 100

5.2.1.2 Electrochemical Immunosensors 101

5.2.1.3 Electrochemical DNA Sensors 102

5.2.1.4 Non-Biomolecule Based Electrochemical Sensors 104

5.2.2 Optical CNT Sensors 105

5.2.3 Field-Effect CNTs Sensors 106

5.2.4 CNT Human Strain Sensor 107

5.3 Conclusion 108

References 108

6 Applications of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes in Drug Delivery Systems 117
N. Palaniappan, Małgorzata Kujawska and Kader Poturcu

6.1 Introduction 118

6.2 Nanoparticles-Doped Carbon Nanotubes 121

6.3 Brain-Targeted Delivery 123

6.4 The Organic Molecules Functionalized CNTs as Drug Delivery Vehicles 125

6.5 Functionalized CNTs with Nanoparticles for Drug Active Molecular Mechanism 126

6.5.1 Future of Scope of Functionalized Carbon Nanotube Drug Delivery Application 126

6.6 Conclusion 127

References 127

7 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Gene Therapy 139
Tejas Agnihotri, Tanuja Shinde, Manoj Gitte, Pankaj Kumar Paradia, Rakesh Kumar Tekade and Aakanchha Jain

7.1 Introduction 140

7.2 Functionalized CNTs and Gene Therapy 141

7.3 Cellular Uptake of CNT 146

7.4 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes and Cancer 147

7.5 Miscellaneous Diseases and Gene Delivery Through Functionalized CNT 150

7.6 Toxicology and Environmental Aspects of Functionalized CNT 158

7.6.1 Cellular Toxicity 159

7.6.2 Liver Toxicity 159

7.6.3 Central Nervous System Toxicity 160

7.6.4 Cardiovascular Toxicity 161

7.7 Regulatory Concerns Over Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 162

7.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects 164

Important Website 165

References 165

8 Applications of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes in Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis 171
Irshad Ahmad, Talat Parween, Lina Khandare, Aafaq Tantray and Weqar Ahmad Siddiqi

8.1 Introduction 172

8.2 Characteristic Properties of CNTs and Their Performance 175

8.2.1 Physicochemical Properties of CNTs 176

8.3 The Techniques of CNTs Functionalization 177

8.4 Application of Carbon Nanotubes in Cancer Therapy and Diagnostic 180

8.4.1 The Use of Carbon Nanotubes in Cancer Treatment 180

8.4.2 Intracellular Targeting Using Carbon Nanotubes 180

8.4.2.1 Nucleus Targeting 181

8.4.2.2 Cytoplasm Targeting 181

8.4.2.3 Mitochondria Targeting 181

8.4.3 CNTs for Immunotherapy 182

8.4.4 Cancer Stem Cell Inhibition 183

8.5 Carbon Nanotubes in Cancer Diagnosis 183

8.5.1 CNTs in Cancer Imaging 184

8.5.1.1 Raman Imaging 184

8.5.1.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging 184

8.5.1.3 Ultrasonography 184

8.5.1.4 Photoacoustic Imaging 185

8.5.1.5 Near‐Infrared Fluorescence Imaging 185

8.6 Future Prospects 186

8.7 Conclusion 186

Important Websites 187

References 188

9 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Biomedical Imaging: The Recent Advances 197
Alina Abbas, Saman Zehra, Ruby Aslam, Mohammad Mobin and Shahidul Islam bhat

9.1 Introduction 198

9.2 CNT-Based Imaging Methods 199

9.2.1 Fluorescence Imaging 200

9.2.2 Raman Imaging 204

9.2.3 Photoacoustic Imaging 207

9.2.4 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 209

9.2.5 Nuclear Imaging 212

9.3 Prospects and Challenges 212

9.4 Conclusion 214

References 214

10 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Artificial Bone Tissue Engineering 225
Sougata Ghosh and Ebrahim Mostafavi

10.1 Introduction 226

10.2 CNT-Based Scaffolds and Implants 230

10.2.1 Hydroxyapatite 231

10.2.2 Polymers 234

10.2.2.1 Poly(ε-Caprolactone) 235

10.2.2.2 Polymethyl-Methacrylate 237

10.2.2.3 Poly(Lactide-Co-Glycolide) 238

10.2.2.4 Poly-L-Lactic Acid 240

10.2.2.5 Polyvinyl Alcohol 241

10.2.2.6 Others 242

10.2.3 Biopolymers 242

10.2.3.1 Chitosan 244

10.2.3.2 Collagen 244

10.2.3.3 Others 247

10.3 Intellectual Property Rights and Commercialization Aspects 248

10.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 251

References 252

11 Application of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes in Biomimetic/Bioinspired Systems 257
Mohammad Mobin, Ruby Aslam, Saman Zehra, Jeenat Aslam and Shahidul Islam bhat

11.1 Introduction 258

11.2 Naturally Occurring Materials 259

11.2.1 Nacre and Bone 259

11.2.2 Petal Effect and Gecko Feet 259

11.2.3 Lotus Effect 260

11.2.4 Structural Colors, Antireflection, and Light Collection 261

11.3 Bioinspired Functionalized CNTs Material 261

11.4 Challenges and Solutions in Using CNTs 272

11.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 272

References 274

12 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: Applications in Tissue Engineering 281
Ajahar Khan, Khalid A. Alamry and Raed H. Althomali

12.1 Introduction 282

12.2 Structural, Physical, and Chemical Properties 284

12.3 Interactions and Biodegradation of CNTs with Biomolecule 287

12.4 Bio-Security of CNT-Based Scaffolds Toward In Vivo Analyses 288

12.5 CNTs Towards the Bone Compatibility 293

12.6 Applications of Functionalized CNTs in Tissue Engineering 294

12.6.1 Functionalized CNTs for Cardiac Tissue Engineering 294

12.6.2 Functionalized CNTs for Neuronal Tissue Regeneration 297

12.6.3 Functionalized CNT for Cartilage Tissue Engineering 298

12.6.4 CNT for Bone Tissue Regeneration 300

12.7 Future Perspectives and Challenges 303

12.8 Conclusion 304

Important Websites 305

References 305

13 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Cell Tracking 319
Sagar Salave, Dhwani Rana, Jyotsna Vitore and Aakanchha Jain

Abbreviations 319

13.1 Introduction 320

13.2 Carbon Nanotubes 321

13.2.1 Cellular Interaction of CNTs 325

13.3 Cellular Tracking via CNT 325

13.3.1 Effect of the Surface Coating of CNTs in Single-Particle Tracking 328

13.4 3D Tracking Using CNTs 328

13.4.1 Detection of Single Protein Molecules Through CNTs 329

13.4.2 Stem Cell Labeling and Tracking Through CNTs 330

13.4.3 Labelling and Tracking of Human Pancreatic Cells Through CNTs 330

13.4.4 CNT as Macrophage Carrying Microdevices 331

13.4.4.1 Intracellular Fluctuations and CNT 331

13.4.5 Limitations of CNTs 332

13.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspective 332

Important Links 333

Acknowledgment 333

References 333

14 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Treatment of Various Diseases 339
Ajahar Khan, Khalid A. Alamry and Raed H. Althomali

14.1 Introduction 340

14.2 CNTs: Basic Structure, and Synthesis Methods 342

14.2.1 Structure and Synthesis of CNTs 342

14.2.2 Arc Discharge Technique 342

14.2.3 Laser Ablation Technique 342

14.2.4 Catalytic Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique 343

14.3 Functionalization of CNTs 343

14.3.1 Covalent Functionalization 344

14.3.2 Non-Covalent Functionalization 344

14.4 Toxicity/Bio-Safety Profile of Carbon Nanotubes 346

14.5 Investigating the Promising Biomedical Effects of Functionalized CNTs 349

14.5.1 Functionalized CNTs-Based Remediation of Infectious Diseases 350

14.5.2 Functionalized CNTs for the Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders (CNS) 350

14.5.3 Functionalized CNTs for Gene Delivery 351

14.5.4 Implication of Functionalized CNTs in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment 354

14.5.5 Functionalized CNTs for Drug Targeting and Release 357

14.6 Future Prospective 362

14.7 Conclusion 363

Important Websites 364

References 365

15 Role of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes in Antimicrobial Activity: A Review 377
Monika Aggarwal, Samina Husain and Basant Kumar

15.1 Introduction 378

15.2 Introduction to CNTs 378

15.2.1 Classification of CNTs 379

15.2.2 Structure of CNTs 381

15.3 Overview on CNTs Functionalization 382

15.3.1 Types of Functionalization 384

15.4 Anti-Microbial Activity of f-CNTs: Interaction and Action 387

15.5 Antifungal Activity of f-CNTs 388

15.6 Antibacterial Activity of f-CNTs 390

15.6.1 For SWNTs 390

15.6.2 For MWCNTs 392

15.7 Commercial Application of Antimicrobial Activity of f-CNTs 400

15.8 Overview on Antimicrobial Activity of f-CNTs 401

15.9 Future Scope 405

15.10 Conclusion 405

Acknowledgement 406

References 406

Index 413

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