Fundamentals of Aquatic Toxicology

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ISBN: 9781560320906 | 1560320907
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 10/1/1995

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This text is divided into three parts. The first part describes basic toxicological concepts and methodologies used in aquatic toxicity testing, including the philosophies underlying testing strategies now required to meet and support regulatory standards. The second part of the book discusses various factors that affect transport, transformation, ultimate distribution, and accumulation of chemicals in the aquatic environment, along with the use of modelling to predict fate. The final section of the book reviews types of effects or endpoints evaluated in field studies and the use of structure-activity relationships in aquatic toxicology to predict biological activity and physio-chemical properties of a chemical. This section also contains an extensive background of environmental legilsation in the U.S. and within the European Community, and an introduction to hazard/risk assessment with case studies.

Contributors

Preface

xix

Preface to the First Edition

xxi

Introduction

(2)

Introduction to Aquatic Toxicology

(68)

G. M. Rand

P. G. Wells

L. S. McCarty

Aquatic Toxicology

(1)

A Short History of Aquatic Toxicology

(4)

The Aquatic Environment

(8)

Factors that Affect the Environmental Concentration of Chemicals

(2)

Basic Toxicological Concepts and Principles

(3)

Factors that Influence Toxicity

(2)

Toxic Agents and Their Effects

(5)

Examination of Concentration-Response Relationships

(6)

Toxicity Testing

(10)

Interpreting Toxicity Test Data

(10)

Biomonitoring

(2)

Toxicity Data and Environmental Regulations

(1)

Summary

(1)

Literature Cited

(9)

Supplemental Reading

(5)

Part I EFFECTS---TOXICITY TESTING

Freshwater Tests

(32)

J. D. Cooney

Introduction

(1)

Freshwater Toxicity Test Procedures

(2)

Methodology

(8)

General Procedures

(12)

Factors that Modify Toxicity

(3)

Variability of Test Results

(1)

Literature Cited

(5)

Saltwater Tests

103

(32)

G. S. Ward

Introduction

103

(1)

General Saltwater Toxicity Test Methodology/Procedures

103

(23)

Developing Community Tests

126

(5)

Literature Cited

131

(4)

Algae and Vascular Plant Tests

135

(36)

M. A. Lewis

Introduction

135

(1)

Terminology

136

(1)

The Need for Phytotoxicity Data

137

(1)

Test Methods: Algae

137

(11)

Test Methods: Vascular Plants

148

(4)

Bioconcentration

152

(1)

Photosynthesis

152

(1)

Multispecies Test Methods

152

(6)

Representative Phytotoxicity Data

158

(1)

Summary

158

(2)

Literature Cited

160

(9)

Supplemental Reading

169

(2)

Sexual Reproduction Tests with Marine Seaweeds (Macroalgae)

171

(18)

G. B. Thursby

R. L. Steele

Introduction

171

(1)

Terminology

172

(1)

Champia Parvula

172

(8)

Laminaria Saccharina

180

(3)

Fucus

183

(3)

Summary

186

(1)

Literature Cited

187

(2)

Sea Urchin Sperm Cell Test

189

(18)

G. A. Chapman

Introduction

189

(1)

Basic Studies of Sea Urchin Gametes

190

(2)

Sperm Cell Test Development

192

(9)

Discussion

201

(3)

Literature Cited

204

(1)

Supplemental Reading

205

(2)

FETAX---A Developmental Toxicity Assay Using Frog Embryos

207

(24)

J. A. Bantle

Introduction

207

(2)

FETAX Literature Review

209

(1)

Terminology

210

(1)

FETAX Reference Sources

210

(1)

Test Organism

211

(1)

FETAX End Points and Exposure Regimens

212

(2)

FETAX Positive and Negative Controls

214

(1)

FETAX Methodology

215

(9)

Data Analysis and Interpretation

224

(4)

Validation Study Results

228

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

228

(1)

Acknowledgments

228

(1)

Literature Cited

228

(3)

Sediment Tests

231

(26)

C. G. Ingersoll

Introduction

231

(1)

Terminology

231

(1)

Characteristics of Sediment

232

(1)

General Principles of Sediment Toxicity Tests

232

(1)

Sediment Quality Assessment

233

(1)

Sediment Quality Criteria and Bioavailability

234

(2)

Remediation of Contaminated Sediment

236

(1)

Methodology

237

(6)

Interpretation and Significance of Results

243

(3)

Case Studies

246

(3)

Summary

249

(2)

Literature Cited

251

(4)

Supplemental Reading

255

(2)

Field Studies

257

(50)

R. L. Graney

J. P. Giesy

J. R. Clark

Introduction

257

(2)

Terminology

259

(5)

``Natural'' Field Studies

264

(3)

Simulated Field Studies

267

(28)

Conclusions

295

(1)

Literature Cited

296

(8)

Supplemental Reading

304

(3)

Statistical Analysis

307

(38)

M. R. Ellersieck

T. W. La Point

Introduction

307

(1)

Considerations for Designing Experiments

308

(7)

Methods Commonly Used for Continuous Random Variables

315

(4)

Linear Statistical Model and the Analysis of Variance

319

(9)

Nonparametric Techniques

328

(1)

The Main Kinds of Experimental Designs

329

(2)

Linear and Multiple Regression

331

(2)

The Analysis of Covariance

333

(1)

Multivariate Techniques

333

(2)

Methods Commonly Used for the Discrete Random Variable

335

(4)

Summary

339

(1)

Acknowledgments

339

(1)

Literature Cited

339

(1)

Supplemental Reading

340

(1)

Appendices

341

(4)

Good Laboratory Practices

345

(26)

N. DiGiulio

A. V. Malloy

Introduction

345

(1)

Background

345

(1)

Terminology

346

(1)

Scope and General Description of the GLP Regulations

347

(13)

QA/QC Program Designs

360

(8)

Future Focus

368

(1)

Literature Cited

369

(1)

Supplemental Reading

370

(1)

Immunotoxicology in Fish

371

(34)

D. P. Anderson

M. G. Zeeman

Introduction---Justifications and Investigational Procedures

371

(1)

Terminology

372

(2)

Fish Immunology---Defensive Responses

374

(9)

Assays and Applications---Immunological Methodologies

383

(8)

Immunotoxicology---Effects of Classes of Toxicants

391

(7)

Summary, Conclusions, and Future Research

398

(2)

Acknowledgments

400

(1)

Literature Cited

400

(4)

Supplemental Reading

404

(1)

Environmental Genotoxicology

405

(16)

L. R. Shugart

Introduction

405

(1)

Terminology

406

(1)

Basic Mechanisms of DNA Damage

406

(2)

Analytical Techniques

408

(4)

In Situ Environmental Genotoxicity Studies with Aquatic Species

412

(4)

Potential Value of Environmental Genotoxicology

416

(1)

Summary

417

(1)

Acknowledgments

417

(1)

Literature Cited

417

(2)

Supplemental Reading

419

(2)

Carcinogenicity Tests Using Aquarium Fish

421

(28)

W. E. Hawkins

W. W. Walker

R. M. Overstreet

Introduction

421

(1)

Fundamental Concepts in Carcinogenesis

422

(5)

Use of Small Fish to Detect Chemical Carcinogens

427

(4)

Considerations in the Design of Carcinogenicity Tests Using Small Fish

431

(2)

Analysis of Carcinogen-Induced Lesions in Small-Fish Carcinogenicity Studies

433

(5)

Methodology in Small-Fish Carcinogenicity Bioassays

438

(3)

Summary

441

(1)

Acknowledgments

441

(1)

Literature Cited

441

(5)

Supplemental Reading

446

(3)

Part II ENVIRONMENTAL FATE

Transport and Transformation Processes

449

(44)

W. J. Lyman

Introduction

449

(2)

Terminology

451

(2)

Organic Chemicals

453

(18)

Inorganic Chemicals

471

(16)

Organometallics

487

(1)

Literature Cited

488

(4)

Supplemental Reading

492

(1)

Bioaccumulation and Bioavailability in Multiphase Systems

493

(30)

A. Spacie

L. S. McCarty

G. M. Rand

Introduction

493

(1)

Terminology

494

(2)

Major Processes Affecting Uptake

496

(11)

Predictive Models and Experimental Approaches

507

(8)

Conclusions and Future Directions

515

(1)

Acknowledgments

516

(1)

Literature Cited

516

(5)

Supplemental Reading

521

(2)

Biochemical Mechanisms: Metabolism, Adaptation, and Toxicity

523

(40)

R. T. Di Giulio

W. H. Benson

B. M. Sanders

P. A. Van Veld

Introduction

523

(1)

Terminology

524

(1)

Biotransformation: Phase I and Phase II Reactions

524

(14)

Activated Oxygen Metabolism and Oxidative Stress

538

(7)

Metal Metabolism and Toxicity

545

(3)

The Cellular Stress Response

548

(5)

Summary

553

(1)

Literature Cited

553

(7)

Supplemental Reading

560

(3)

Fate Modeling

563

(26)

D. Mackay

L. A. Burns

G. M. Rand

Introduction

563

(1)

Fundamentals of Modeling

564

(7)

The Mass Balance Concept

571

(3)

Fate and Effect Models of Interest in Aquatic Toxicology

574

(6)

An Illustrative One-Compartment Case Study

580

(4)

Concluding Thoughts

584

(1)

Literature Cited

584

(2)

Supplemental Reading

586

(3)

Part III ASSESSMENT

Exposure/Effects, Environmental Legislation, and Hazard/Risk

Exposure/Effects

Ecosystem Effects: Functional End Points

589

(20)

J. Cairns Jr.

B. R. Niederlehner

E. P. Smith

Introduction

589

(1)

Commonly Measured Functional Attributes

590

(2)

Observed Effects of Chemicals on Function of Ecosystems

592

(1)

Rationale for Selection of Functional End Points

593

(6)

Screening Functional End Points for Assessment and Monitoring

599

(2)

Statistical Issues in Ecosystem Studies

601

(2)

Incorporating Functional End Points into Management

603

(1)

Summary

604

(1)

Literature Cited

604

(3)

Supplemental Reading

607

(2)

Structure-Activity Relationships

609

(48)

R. L. Lipnick

Introduction

609

(4)

Historical Background

613

(3)

Basic Concepts

616

(8)

Use of QSAR Models for Estimation of Physicochemical and Biological Properties (Exposure Assessment)

624

(6)

Use of QSAR Models for Ecotoxicity (Effects Assessment)

630

(12)

Summary of QSAR Models for Ecotoxicity

642

(1)

Literature Cited

643

(14)

Environmental Legislation

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act

657

(12)

L. W. Touart

Introduction

657

(1)

General Ecotoxicology and Environmental Testing Requirements under FIFRA

658

(5)

Risk Assessment under FIFRA

663

(5)

Literature Cited

668

(1)

Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Interagency Testing Committee: Data Developed under Section 4 of TSCA

669

(34)

J. D. Walker

Introduction

669

(1)

Chemical Testing under the Toxic Substances Control Act

669

(1)

The TSCA Interagency Testing Committee

670

(1)

The EPA's Implementation of ITC's Testing Recommendations

671

(9)

The Chemical Industry's Development of Aquatic Toxicity, Bioconcentration, and Chemical Fate Test Data under TSCA Section 4

680

(18)

Literature Cited

698

(5)

Ecotoxicity Testing and Estimation Methods Developed under Section 5 of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

703

(14)

M. G. Zeeman

Introduction

703

(1)

The New Chemical Review Process

703

(4)

Hazard Assessment and Ecotoxicology

707

(2)

QSAR Development

709

(2)

Assessment Factors for Ecotoxicity

711

(2)

Conclusions

713

(1)

Acknowledgments

713

(1)

Literature Cited

713

(4)

The Clean Water Act

717

(18)

G. W. Hudiburgh, Jr.

Introduction

717

(1)

Terminology

717

(3)

The Clean Water Act and Its Implementation

720

(11)

Emerging Activities

731

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

731

(1)

Literature Cited

732

(3)

FDA's Implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act

735

(28)

P. G. Vincent

Introduction

735

(1)

Terminology

736

(6)

Pertinent NEPA Legal Issues

742

(1)

The Environmental Assessment

743

(19)

Literature Cited

762

(1)

Role of the OECD in Chemicals Control and International Harmonization of Testing Methods

763

(12)

N. J. Grandy

Introduction---The OECD and Its Environment Programme

763

(1)

Chemical Safety and the OECD

764

(1)

Management of Chemicals

764

(1)

OECD Guidelines for Testing of Chemicals

764

(5)

Other OECD Chemicals Programme Activities

769

(2)

Summary

771

(1)

OECD Guidelines for Testing of Chemicals: List of Guidelines Currently Available (December 1994)

771

(1)

Supplemental Reading

772

(3)

Environmental Regulation in the European Community

775

(28)

J. Blok

F. Balk

Introduction---Environmental Awareness from a European Historical Perspective

775

(3)

The Story of the Soapers

778

(4)

Structure of the European Community with Regard to Environmental Legislation

782

(3)

A Short Review of Environmental Directives in the European Community

785

(7)

Environmental Legislation in View of the Basic Principles of Environmental Impact Assessment

792

(2)

The ``Key'' to Classification

794

(2)

Lessons from Interlaboratory Ring Tests

796

(5)

Outlook

801

(1)

Literature Cited

801

(2)

Hazard/Risk

Introduction

Introduction to Ecological Risk Assessment for Aquatic Toxic Effects

803

(14)

G. W. Suter II

Introduction

803

(1)

Terminology

804

(1)

Risk Assessment Paradigms

805

(8)

Quantitative Methods of Risk Characterization

813

(1)

Conclusions

814

(1)

Literature Cited

815

(1)

Supplemental Reading

816

(1)

General Types of Aquatic Assessments

817

(10)

R. K. Markarian

Introduction---What Is Aquatic Assessment?

817

(1)

Types of Assessments

818

(5)

Planning the Assessment

823

(1)

Conclusions

824

(1)

Literature Cited

824

(1)

Supplemental Reading

825

(2)

Hazard Risk

Case Studies

Predicting the Effects of Insecticides on Aquatic Systems and the Waterfowl that Use Them

827

(32)

P. J. Sheehan

A. Baril

P. Mineau

D. J. Paustenbach

Introduction

827

(1)

Problem Definition

827

(10)

Risk Assessment Approach

837

(18)

Literature Cited

855

(4)

Linear Alkylbenzene Sulfonate (LAS)

859

(24)

R. J. Larson

D. M. Woltering

Introduction

859

(5)

Terminology

864

(1)

Introduction to LAS

864

(3)

Level I Risk Assessment

867

(3)

Level II Risk Assessment

870

(10)

Summary

880

(1)

Literature Cited

881

(2)

A Hazardous Waste Site at the Naval Weapons Station, Concord, Ca.

883

(20)

K. D. Jenkins

C. R. Lee

J. F. Hobson

Introduction

883

(1)

The Conceptual Framework

884

(10)

Exposure Assessment

894

(2)

Effects Assessment

896

(4)

Risk Evaluation

900

(1)

Risk Management

901

(1)

Literature Cited

901

(2)

Effluents

903

(36)

P. B. Dorn

R. van Compernolle

Introduction

903

(1)

Terminology

904

(14)

The Toxicity Identification Evaluation Process

918

(13)

Sediments

931

(1)

Bioconcentration

932

(1)

Summary

933

(3)

Literature Cited

936

(3)

Glossary

939

(8)

Appendix

947

(136)

Index

1083

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Fundamentals of Aquatic Toxicology

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