Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering An Integrated Approach
, by Callister, William D.; Rethwisch, David G.
- ISBN: 9781119747734 | 1119747732
- Cover: Loose-leaf
- Copyright: 1/13/2021
This revised Sixth Edition presents the basic fundamentals on a level appropriate for college students who have completed their freshmen calculus, chemistry, and physics courses. All subject matter is presented in a logical order, from the simple to the more complex. Each chapter builds on the content of previous ones. In order to expedite the learning process, the book provides:
- "Concept Check" questions to test conceptual understanding
- End-of-chapter questions and problems to develop understanding of concepts and problem-solving skills
- End-of-book Answers to Selected Problems to check accuracy of work
- End-of chapter summary tables containing key equations and equation symbols
- A glossary for easy reference
List of Symbols xix
1. Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 2
1.1 Historical Perspective 2
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3
1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5
Case Study 1.1—Cargo Ship Failures 6
1.4 Classification of Materials 7
Case Study 1.2—Carbonated Beverage Containers 12
1.5 Advanced Materials 14
1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 17
Summary 18
References 18
2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 19
Learning Objectives 20
2.1 Introduction 20
Atomic Structure 20
2.2 Fundamental Concepts 20
2.3 Electrons in Atoms 22
2.4 The Periodic Table 28
Atomic Bonding in Solids 30
2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 30
2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 32
2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 39
Materials of Importance 2.1—Water (Its Volume Expansion upon Freezing) 42
2.8 Mixed Bonding 43
2.9 Molecules 44
2.10 Bonding Type-Material Classification Correlations 44
Summary 45
Equation Summary 46
List of Symbols 46
Important Terms and Concepts 47
References 47
3. Structures of Metals and Ceramics 48
Learning Objectives 49
3.1 Introduction 49
Crystal Structures 49
3.2 Fundamental Concepts 49
3.3 Unit Cells 50
3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 51
3.5 Density Computations—Metals 57
3.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures 57
3.7 Density Computations—Ceramics 63
3.8 Silicate Ceramics 64
3.9 Carbon 68
3.10 Polymorphism and Allotropy 69
3.11 Crystal Systems 69
Material of Importance 3.1—Tin (Its Allotropic Transformation) 71
Crystallographic Points, Directions, and Planes 72
3.12 Point Coordinates 72
3.13 Crystallographic Directions 74
3.14 Crystallographic Planes 81
3.15 Linear and Planar Densities 87
3.16 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 88
Crystalline and Noncrystalline Materials 91
3.17 Single Crystals 91
3.18 Polycrystalline Materials 92
3.19 Anisotropy 92
3.20 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 94
3.21 Noncrystalline Solids 99
Summary 101
Equation Summary 103
List of Symbols 104
Important Terms and Concepts 105
References 105
4. Polymer Structures 106
Learning Objectives 107
4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 107
4.3 Polymer Molecules 110
4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 110
4.5 Molecular Weight 114
4.6 Molecular Shape 117
4.7 Molecular Structure 119
4.8 Molecular Configurations 120
4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 123
4.10 Copolymers 124
4.11 Polymer Crystallinity 125
4.12 Polymer Crystals 129
Summary 131
Equation Summary 132
List of Symbols 133
Important Terms and Concepts 133
References 133
5. Imperfections in Solids 134
Learning Objectives 135
5.1 Introduction 135
Point Defects 136
5.2 Point Defects in Metals 136
5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 137
5.4 Impurities in Solids 140
5.5 Point Defects in Polymers 145
5.6 Specification of Composition 145
Miscellaneous Imperfections 149
5.7 Dislocations—Linear Defects 149
5.8 Interfacial Defects 152
Materials of Importance 5.1—Catalysts (and Surface Defects) 155
5.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 156
5.10 Atomic Vibrations 156
Microscopic Examination 157
5.11 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 157
5.12 Microscopic Techniques 158
5.13 Grain-Size Determination 162
Summary 165
Equation Summary 167
List of Symbols 167
Important Terms and Concepts 168
References 168
6. Diffusion 169
Learning Objectives 170
6.1 Introduction 170
6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 171
6.3 Fick’s First Law 172
6.4 Fick’s Second Law—Nonsteady-State Diffusion 174
6.5 Factors that Influence Diffusion 178
6.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials 183
Materials of Importance 6.1—Aluminum for Integrated Circuit Interconnects 186
6.7 Other Diffusion Paths 187
6.8 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials 187
Summary 190
Equation Summary 191
List of Symbols 192
Important Terms and Concepts 192
References 192
7. Mechanical Properties 193
Learning Objectives 194
7.1 Introduction 194
7.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 195
Elastic Deformation 199
7.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 199
7.4 Anelasticity 202
7.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 203
Mechanical Behavior—Metals 205
7.6 Tensile Properties 206
7.7 True Stress and Strain 213
7.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 216
7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformations 216
Mechanical Behavior—Ceramics 217
7.10 Flexural Strength 217
7.11 Elastic Behavior 218
7.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics 218
Mechanical Behavior—Polymers 220
7.13 Stress–Strain Behavior 220
7.14 Macroscopic Deformation 222
7.15 Viscoelastic Deformation 223
Hardness and Other Mechanical Property Considerations 227
7.16 Hardness 227
7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 232
7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers 233
Property Variability and Design/Safety Factors 234
7.19 Variability of Material Properties 234
7.20 Design/Safety Factors 236
Summary 240
Equation Summary 242
List of Symbols 243
Important Terms and Concepts 244
References 244
8. Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms 246
Learning Objectives 247
8.1 Introduction 247
Deformation Mechanisms for Metals 247
8.2 Historical 248
8.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 248
8.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 250
8.5 Slip Systems 251
8.6 Slip in Single Crystals 253
8.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 256
8.8 Deformation by Twinning 258
Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals 259
8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 259
8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 261
8.11 Strain Hardening 262
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 265
8.12 Recovery 265
8.13 Recrystallization 266
8.14 Grain Growth 270
Deformation Mechanisms for Ceramic Materials 272
8.15 Crystalline Ceramics 272
8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 272
Mechanisms of Deformation and for Strengthening of Polymers 273
8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 273
8.18 Factors that Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 275
Materials of Importance 8.1—Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films 278
8.19 Deformation of Elastomers 279
Summary 281
Equation Summary 284
List of Symbols 284
Important Terms and Concepts 284
References 285
9. Failure 286
Learning Objectives 287
9.1 Introduction 287
Fracture 288
9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 288
9.3 Ductile Fracture 288
9.4 Brittle Fracture 290
9.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 292
9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 301
9.7 Fracture of Polymers 305
9.8 Fracture Toughness Testing 307
Fatigue 311
9.9 Cyclic Stresses 312
9.10 The S–N Curve 313
9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials 318
9.12 Crack Initiation and Propagation 319
9.13 Factors that Affect Fatigue Life 321
9.14 Environmental Effects 323
Creep 324
9.15 Generalized Creep Behavior 324
9.16 Stress and Temperature Effects 325
9.17 Data Extrapolation Methods 328
9.18 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 329
9.19 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric Materials 330
Summary 330
Equation Summary 333
List of Symbols 334
Important Terms and Concepts 335
References 335
10. Phase Diagrams 336
Learning Objectives 337
10.1 Introduction 337
Definitions and Basic Concepts 337
10.2 Solubility Limit 338
10.3 Phases 339
10.4 Microstructure 339
10.5 Phase Equilibria 339
10.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 340
Binary Phase Diagrams 341
10.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 342
10.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 344
10.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 348
10.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 351
10.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 351
10.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 357
Materials of Importance 10.1—Lead-Free Solders 358
10.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 364
10.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 367
10.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 368
10.16 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 369
10.17 Ternary Phase Diagrams 372
10.18 The Gibbs Phase Rule 373
The Iron–Carbon System 375
10.19 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 375
10.20 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 378
10.21 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 385
Summary 386
Equation Summary 388
List of Symbols 389
Important Terms and Concepts 389
References 389
11. Phase Transformations 390
Learning Objectives 391
11.1 Introduction 391
Phase Transformations in Metals 391
11.2 Basic Concepts 392
11.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 392
11.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 403
Microstructural and Property Changes in Iron–Carbon Alloys 404
11.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 404
11.6 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams 415
11.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys 418
11.8 Tempered Martensite 422
11.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Alloys 425
Materials of Importance 11.1—ShapeMemory Alloys 428
Precipitation Hardening 431
11.10 Heat Treatments 431
11.11 Mechanism of Hardening 433
11.12 Miscellaneous Considerations 435
Crystallization, Melting, and Glass Transition Phenomena in Polymers 436
11.13 Crystallization 436
11.14 Melting 437
11.15 The Glass Transition 437
11.16 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 438
11.17 Factors that Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 438
Summary 441
Equation Summary 443
List of Symbols 444
Important Terms and Concepts 444
References 444
12. Electrical Properties 445
Learning Objectives 446
12.1 Introduction 446
Electrical Conduction 446
12.2 Ohm’s Law 446
12.3 Electrical Conductivity 447
12.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 448
12.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 448
12.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 450
12.7 Electron Mobility 452
12.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 453
12.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 456
Semiconductivity 456
12.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 456
12.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 459
12.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 462
12.13 Factors that Affect Carrier Mobility 463
12.14 The Hall Effect 467
12.15 Semiconductor Devices 469
Electrical Conduction in Ionic Ceramics and in Polymers 475
12.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 476
12.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 476
Dielectric Behavior 477
12.18 Capacitance 477
12.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 479
12.20 Types of Polarization 482
12.21 Frequency Dependence of The Dielectric Constant 484
12.22 Dielectric Strength 485
12.23 Dielectric Materials 485
Other Electrical Characteristics of Materials 485
12.24 Ferroelectricity 485
12.25 Piezoelectricity 486
Material of Importance 12.1—Piezoelectric Ceramic Ink-Jet Printer Heads 487
Summary 487
Equation Summary 491
List of Symbols 491
Important Terms and Concepts 492
References 492
13. Types and Applications of Materials 493
Learning Objectives 494
13.1 Introduction 494
Types of Metal Alloys 494
13.2 Ferrous Alloys 494
13.3 Nonferrous Alloys 507
Materials of Importance 13.1—Metal Alloys Used for Euro Coins 517
Types of Ceramics 518
13.4 Glasses 519
13.5 Glass-Ceramics 519
13.6 Clay Products 521
13.7 Refractories 521
13.8 Abrasives 524
13.9 Cements 526
13.10 Ceramic Biomaterials 527
13.11 Carbons 528
13.12 Advanced Ceramics 531
Types of Polymers 536
13.13 Plastics 536
Materials of Importance 13.2—Phenolic Billiard Balls 539
13.14 Elastomers 539
13.15 Fibers 541
13.16 Miscellaneous Applications 542
13.17 Polymeric Biomaterials 543
13.18 Advanced Polymeric Materials 545
Summary 549
Important Terms and Concepts 552
References 552
14. Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials 553
Learning Objectives 554
14.1 Introduction 554
Fabrication of Metals 554
14.2 Forming Operations 555
14.3 Casting 556
14.4 Miscellaneous Techniques 558
14.5 3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing) 559
Thermal Processing of Metals 563
14.6 Annealing Processes 563
14.7 Heat Treatment of Steels 566
Fabrication of Ceramic Materials 577
14.8 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics 577
14.9 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 583
14.10 Powder Pressing 587
14.11 Tape Casting 589
14.12 3D Printing of Ceramic Materials 590
Synthesis and Fabrication of Polymers 591
14.13 Polymerization 591
14.14 Polymer Additives 594
14.15 Forming Techniques for Plastics 595
14.16 Fabrication of Elastomers 598
14.17 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 598
14.18 3D Printing of Polymers 599
Summary 602
Important Terms and Concepts 604
References 605
15. Composites 606
Learning Objectives 607
15.1 Introduction 607
Particle-Reinforced Composites 609
15.2 Large–Particle Composites 609
15.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 613
Fiber-Reinforced Composites 613
15.4 Influence of Fiber Length 614
15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 615
15.6 The Fiber Phase 623
15.7 The Matrix Phase 625
15.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 625
15.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 631
15.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 632
15.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 634
15.12 Hybrid Composites 634
15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 635
Structural Composites 637
15.14 Laminar Composites 637
15.15 Sandwich Panels 639
Case Study 15.1—Use of Composites in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner 641
15.16 Nanocomposites 642
Summary 644
Equation Summary 647
List of Symbols 647
Important Terms and Concepts 648
References 648
16. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 649
Learning Objectives 650
16.1 Introduction 650
Corrosion of Metals 651
16.2 Electrochemical Considerations 651
16.3 Corrosion Rates 657
16.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 659
16.5 Passivity 665
16.6 Environmental Effects 666
16.7 Forms of Corrosion 667
16.8 Corrosion Environments 674
16.9 Corrosion Prevention 675
16.10 Oxidation 677
Corrosion of Ceramic Materials 681
Degradation of Polymers 681
16.11 Swelling and Dissolution 681
16.12 Bond Rupture 683
16.13 Weathering 685
Summary 685
Equation Summary 687
List of Symbols 688
Important Terms and Concepts 689
References 689
17. Thermal Properties 690
Learning Objectives 691
17.1 Introduction 691
17.2 Heat Capacity 691
17.3 Thermal Expansion 695
Materials of Importance 17.1—Invar and Other Low-Expansion Alloys 697
17.4 Thermal Conductivity 698
17.5 Thermal Stresses 701
Summary 703
Equation Summary 704
List of Symbols 705
Important Terms and Concepts 705
References 705
18. Magnetic Properties 706
Learning Objectives 707
18.1 Introduction 707
18.2 Basic Concepts 707
18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 711
18.4 Ferromagnetism 713
18.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 714
18.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior 718
18.7 Domains and Hysteresis 719
18.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 722
18.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 724
Materials of Importance 18.1—An Iron–Silicon Alloy that Is Used in Transformer Cores 724
18.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 726
18.11 Magnetic Storage 729
18.12 Superconductivity 732
Summary 735
Equation Summary 737
List of Symbols 737
Important Terms and Concepts 738
References 738
19. Optical Properties 739
Learning Objectives 740
19.1 Introduction 740
Basic Concepts 740
19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 740
19.3 Light Interactions with Solids 742
19.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions 743
Optical Properties of Metals 744
Optical Properties of Nonmetals 745
19.5 Refraction 745
19.6 Reflection 747
19.7 Absorption 747
19.8 Transmission 751
19.9 Color 751
19.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators 753
Applications of Optical Phenomena 754
19.11 Luminescence 754
19.12 Photoconductivity 754
Materials of Importance 19.1—LightEmitting Diodes 755
19.13 Lasers 757
19.14 Optical Fibers in Communications 761
Summary 763
Equation Summary 765
List of Symbols 766
Important Terms and Concepts 766
References 766
20. Environmental and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 767
Learning Objectives 768
20.1 Introduction 768
20.2 Environmental and Societal Considerations 768
20.3 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 771
Materials of Importance 20.1— Biodegradable and Biorenewable
Polymers/Plastics 775
Summary 777
References 778
Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) 779
Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials 781
B.1: Density 781
B.2: Modulus of Elasticity 784
B.3: Poisson’s Ratio 788
B.4: Strength and Ductility 789
B.5: Plane Strain Fracture Toughness 794
B.6: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 796
B.7: Thermal Conductivity 799
B.8: Specific Heat 802
B.9: Electrical Resistivity 805
B.10: Metal Alloy Compositions 808
Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials 810
Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers 815
Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials 819
Appendix F 820
Glossary 824
Questions and Problems P-1
Answers to Selected Problems P-A1
Index TK
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