Greenhouse Gas Carbon Dioxide Mitigation: Science and Technology

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ISBN: 9781566702843 | 1566702844
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 11/23/1998

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Any mention of the "greenhouse effect" tends to ignite controversy. While the rising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases-especially carbon dioxide- are certainly among the most pressing issues today, theoretical & perceived consequences have been subject to conjecture & misinformation. That raging debate has obscured an important fact: scientists & engineers are hard at work on methods to reduce CO

Acknowledgments

xviii

The Authors

xix

The Science and the Source of the Greenhouse Effect and Global Climate Change

(14)

The Greenhouse Effect

(2)

The CO2 Concentration Buildup

(1)

Other Radiative Gases

(1)

Earth--Atmosphere Energy Balance

(1)

Earth--Atmosphere Carbon Cycle

(2)

Effect of Buildup of Greenhouse Gases

(1)

Global Effects of Temperature Increase

(1)

Sources of CO2 Input to the Atmosphere

(6)

References

(2)

Adaptive vs. Mitigative Response Strategies for Global Warming

(6)

Adaptive Approach

(3)

Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems

(1)

Forests

(1)

Deserts and Desertification

(1)

Glaciers

(1)

Mountain Regions

(1)

Lakes, Streams, and Wetlands

(1)

Coastal Systems and Oceans

(1)

Water Resource Management

(1)

Food and Fiber (Agriculture)

(1)

Forest Products

(1)

Fisheries

(1)

Human Infrastructure

(1)

Human Health

(1)

Summary of Adaptive Responses

(1)

Mitigation Responses

(2)

References

(1)

Concepts for Controlling Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

(40)

Introduction

(1)

Logic for Constructing Systems and Scenarios for Mitigating the Atmospheric CO2 Effect

(4)

Physical, Chemical, Physical---Chemical, and Biological Properties Required to Construct a Mitigating Process Systems

(3)

Criteria for Evaluating Systems for Mitigating the Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Effect

(1)

Specific Mitigating Process Systems and Preliminary Evaluation

(26)

Physical Systems

(1)

Absorption and Stripping Systems Using Liquid Solvents

(1)

Adsorption and Stripping Using Solid Adsorbents

(1)

Diffusional Processes for Separation of CO2

(1)

Chemical Systems

(1)

Combustion of Fossil Fuel to CO at Industrial Source Point and Combination with a Nonfossil Energy Source to Produce Carbonaceous Fuels

(2)

Isothermal Extraction of CO2 from the Atmosphere or Stack Gases and Combination with a Nonfossil Source of Hydrogen to Form Methanol and Synthetic Fuels

(1)

Reduction of CO2 with C After Combustion and Conversion to Synthetic Fuel with a Nonfossil Source

(2)

The Extraction of CO2 with Lime During Combustion

(1)

Fuel Substitution and Decarbonization

(1)

Physical/Chemical Systems

(1)

CO2 Recycle Power Plant

(1)

Electrochemical Decomposition of CO2

(1)

Photoelectrochemical Reduction of CO2

(1)

High-Energy Radiation Decomposition of CO2

(2)

Photochemical Decomposition of CO2

(1)

Thermal Decomposition of CO2

(1)

Biological Systems

(1)

Photosynthetic Fixation of Atmospheric CO2

(1)

Biological Reducation of CO2 in Marine Organisms

(1)

CO2 Disposal Schemes

(1)

Utilization of CO2

(1)

Market Projection

(1)

Present Market

(1)

Future Projections

(3)

Summary

(5)

References

(2)

Technologies for Improving Efficiency of Energy Conversion and Utilization and the Effects on Global CO2 Emission

(74)

Introduction

(8)

Energy Form and Usage

(1)

Energy Technology

(6)

Methodological Approach

(48)

Global Energy Demand

(1)

Time Frame

(1)

Screening Technologies

(1)

Technological Effects on Energy Consumption

(3)

U.S.

(1)

Residential and Commercial Sector

(3)

Industrial Sector

(2)

Transportation Sector

(5)

Canada and Western Europe and OECD Pacific

(1)

Developing Regions

(9)

Electricity Generation Technologies

(3)

Technology Effects on Global Fossil-Fuel Demand and Savings

(8)

Estimating CO2 Emissions

104

(6)

Estimates of Costs for Implementation of Improved Technologies

110

(7)

Observations Related to the Estimates of Regional and Global CO2 Emission Reduction Due to Improvement in Efficiency of Energy Technology

117

(2)

Conclusions

119

(16)

Effects of Technology on Energy Consumption

122

(5)

Calculation of Savings of Fossil Fuels Due to Improvements in Electricity-Generating Technologies

127

(1)

Calculation of Increase in Electricity Generation from Nonfossil Fuel Due to Improvements in Electricity-Generating Technologies

127

(1)

Estimates of Implementation Costs of Improved Energy Technologies

128

(5)

References

133

(2)

Removal, Recovery, and Disposal of Carbon Dioxide

135

(58)

Introduction

135

(1)

Removal and Recovery of CO2 from Fossil-Fuel Combustion

136

(3)

Absorption/Stripping

137

(1)

Adsorption/Stripping

138

(1)

Potassium Carbonate Absorption/Stripping

138

(1)

Refrigeration (Cryogenic)

138

(1)

Membrane Separation

138

(1)

Seawater Absorption

138

(1)

Oxygen/Coal-Fired Power Plant

138

(1)

Disposal of CO2

139

(3)

Ocean Disposal

139

(2)

Depleted Gas Wells

141

(1)

Active Oil Wells

141

(1)

Storage in Coal Mines and Deep Beds

141

(1)

Salt Domes

142

(1)

Aquifers

142

(1)

Natural Minerals

142

(1)

Capacity for Sequestering CO2

142

(1)

System Study

143

(13)

CO2 Removal and Recovery System for Fossil-Fuel Power Plant Flue Gases

143

(1)

CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel

143

(1)

CO2 Removal and Recovery Using Improved Solvent Process

144

(2)

Integration of Power Plant and CO2 Recovery System

146

(2)

CO2 Recovery Plant Costs

148

(1)

CO2 Disposal Systems

148

(1)

Ocean Disposal

148

(4)

Oil and Gas Wells Disposal

152

(1)

Disposal in Salt Caverns

153

(2)

Disposal in Aquifers

155

(1)

Disposal in Coal Beds

156

(1)

Regional CO2 Disposal Systems for Fossil-Fuel Power Plants

156

(14)

Regional CO2 Disposal Design

156

(8)

Energy Requirements

164

(4)

Capital Investments and Power Generation Costs

168

(2)

Summary of Findings of the Systems Study

170

(7)

Comparison of Capture and Disposal Costs

177

(1)

Impact of Removal of CO2 from Power Plant Stacks on Carbon Balance in the Atmosphere

178

(2)

Long-Term Storage of CO2 in the Ocean

180

(1)

Problems Associated with Sequestering CO2 in the Ocean

181

(12)

Calculation of Energy Requirements for CO2 Recovery Plant as Shown in Table 5.6

182

(2)

Calculation of Power Plant Efficiency After Integrating Power Plant with CO2 Recovery System as Shown in Table 5.7

184

(2)

Calculation of Net Power Capacity, Capital Investment, and Electricity Production Cost of a 100-MW(e) Coal-Fired Power Plant as Shown in Table 5.7 and Subsequent Cost Estimates

186

(3)

References

189

(4)

Bioconversion of CO2 and Biomass Processes

193

(28)

Methanogenic and Acetogenic Bacteria

193

(4)

Thermophilic Methanogens

194

(2)

Extremely Thermophilic Methanogens

196

(1)

Bioconversion of Methane to Methanol

196

(1)

Thermophilic Homoacetogens

197

(1)

Algal Photosynthesis

197

(4)

Microalgae

198

(2)

Macroalgae

200

(1)

Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions

201

(2)

Formate Dehydrogenase

201

(1)

Isocitrate Dehydrogenase

202

(1)

Ferredoxin-NADP+ Reductase

202

(1)

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase

202

(1)

Phenol Carboxylase

203

(1)

Biomimetic Reactions

203

(6)

Porphyrins

203

(1)

Iron---Sulfur and Molybdenum---Sulfur Clusters

204

(1)

Carbondiimides and Urea Derivatives

205

(1)

Crown Ethers

206

(1)

Mg-and Mn-Diazadiene Complexes

206

(1)

Lanthanoid Complex

207

(1)

Carbonic Anhydrase Models

207

(1)

Organophosphorus Acids

208

(1)

Peroxocarbonates

209

(1)

Biomass Processes

209

(2)

Conclusions on Bioconversion and Biomass Processes

211

(10)

References

212

(9)

Decarbonization of Fossil Fuels and Conversion to Alternative Fuels

221

(32)

Introduction

221

(1)

Natural Gas for Power Production

221

(1)

Natural Gas for Hydrogen Production

222

(1)

Coal Gasification for Power Production

222

(3)

Coal Gasification for Hydrogen Production

225

(1)

Partial Oxidation of Oil for Hydrogen Production

225

(3)

Biomass Gasification for Hydrogen Production

228

(1)

Principles of Fossil-Fuel Decarbonization and CO2 Mitigation

228

(2)

The Thermal Cracking of Natural Gas for Hydrogen Production

230

(1)

Methanol Production by the Hydrocarb Process for CO2 Emission Reduction

231

(5)

The Carnol Process for Methanol Production and CO2 Mitigation

236

(9)

CO2 Emissions Evaluation of Entire Carnol System and the Synthesis of Methanol

238

(7)

The Hynol Process Maximizes Methanol Production with a Limited Reduction in CO2 Emission

245

(4)

The Hynol Process Description

245

(1)

The Hydrogasifier

246

(1)

Steam Reforming

247

(1)

Methanol Synthesis Reactor

247

(1)

Process Simulation and Comparison of Hynol with Conventional Methanol Processes

248

(1)

Comparative Analysis of Decarbonization Processes for Methanol Production

249

(4)

References

251

(2)

Thermochemical Reactions of CO2

253

(12)

Thermal Dissociation

253

(3)

Dissociation and Solid Electrolyte Separation of CO2 from O2

253

(1)

Dissociation on Metal and Metal Oxide Surfaces

254

(2)

Insertion of Cr, Mo, and W Atoms into CO2

256

(1)

CH4 Reforming with CO2 Produced in Metallurgical and Cement Industries

256

(1)

Thermochemical Cycles

257

(2)

Thermochemical Carboxylation

259

(2)

Kolbe-Schmitt Synthesis of Salicylic Acid

259

(1)

Synthesis of Oxalate from Cesium Carbonate

260

(1)

Carboxylation of Cesium 2-Naphthoate

260

(1)

Malonic Acid from Potassium Acetate

261

(1)

Glutaconic Acid from Cesium 3-Butenoate

261

(1)

Conclusions on Thermochemical Reactions

261

(4)

References

262

(3)

Carboxylation by CO2 Insertion

265

(50)

Introduction

265

(1)

Carbamates and Urea Derivatives

266

(6)

Open-Chain Carbamates

266

(1)

Urea Derivatives

267

(1)

Urethanes and Polyurethanes

268

(2)

Cyclic Carbamates

270

(2)

Isocyanates from Carbamate Anions

272

(1)

Carbonate Esters

272

(9)

Open-Chain Carbonates

272

(1)

Cyclic Carbonates from Epoxides and CO2

273

(3)

Cyclic Carbonates from Substituted Propargy1 Alcohols and CO2

276

(2)

Cyclic Carbonates from Styrene and O2/CO2

278

(1)

Polycarbonates

278

(3)

CO2-Metal Center Coordination

281

(16)

Structural Characterization

281

(3)

Reduction to Formate and Formaldehyde

284

(1)

Grignard Reactions

284

(2)

Insertion into Rhenium-Alkoxide and -Arylamide Complexes

286

(1)

Insertion into the Tungsten (II)-Alkoxide Bond

286

(1)

Insertion into the Tungsten-Nitrogen Bond

287

(1)

Ni-Complex-Mediated Carboxylation of Haloarenes and Styrene

287

(1)

Ring Closure of Dienes to Lactones

288

(1)

Allenes and CO2

288

(1)

Carboxylation of Dienes

288

(1)

Carboxylation of Acetylenic Compounds

289

(2)

Diyenes and CO2

291

(1)

Copolymerization of Diyenes and CO2 to Polypyrones

291

(1)

Friedel---Crafts Reaction

292

(1)

Carboxylation of Methane to Acetic Acid

293

(1)

Dimethy1 Acetylene Dicarboxylate---PIII Compounds with CO2

293

(1)

Insertion into the Zr---H and Zr---C Bonds

293

(1)

Insertion into the Ni---C Bond

294

(1)

Insertion into Rh---Os Bond

294

(1)

Carboxylation of Lithiated Benzyl Alcohols

294

(1)

Ethylene Carboxylation in a Gas---Solid Reaction

295

(1)

CO2 Metathetical Exchange with Ge and Sn Bisamides

296

(1)

Insertion into the Sn---C Bond

297

(1)

Reversible CO2 Carriers

297

(5)

Cu and Zn Complexes

297

(2)

Ni Complexes

299

(1)

Br---Mg Imido Complexes

300

(1)

Alkali Phenoxides

300

(1)

Cobalt(salen) Complexes

301

(1)

Tertiary Amines and CO2

301

(1)

Plasma Polymerization of Perfluorobenzene and CO2

302

(1)

Conclusions on Carboxylation by CO2 Insertion

302

(13)

References

302

(13)

CO2 Reforming and Hydrogenation

315

(76)

Introduction

315

(1)

Hydrocarbon Reforming

316

(16)

Methane CO2 Reforming

316

(1)

Carbon Formation

317

(1)

Noble Metal Catalysts: SPARG and CALCOR Processes

318

(3)

Nickel and Cobalt Catalysts

321

(4)

Ultrafine Single-Crystal MgO Supports

325

(1)

MoS2 and WS2 Catalysts

325

(1)

Combined Partial Oxidation and Reforming of Methane

326

(2)

Partial Oxidation of Methane to Ethane and Ethene

328

(1)

Solar Furnace Reforming

328

(1)

Oxidation of Alkanes by CO2 to Aromatics, Olefins, and Acetic Acid

329

(1)

Alkanes to Alkenes and Aromatics

329

(1)

Ethylbenzene to Styrene

330

(1)

Ethylene to Divinyl and Propene

330

(1)

Toluene Reforming by CO2 to Benzene

331

(1)

Fluidized Bed Reforming of Methane

331

(1)

CO2 Reforming in Hydrogen-Permselective Membrane Reactor

331

(1)

Catalytic Hydrogenation

332

(31)

Reverse Water---Gas-Shift Reaction

333

(1)

Heterogeneous Catalysis

333

(1)

Homogeneous Catalysis

334

(1)

Precursor to Fischer---Tropsch Synthesis

334

(1)

Methanation

334

(1)

Ni Catalysts

335

(1)

Ru, Pd, and Rh Catalysts

336

(1)

Fe Catalysts

337

(1)

Co/Cu/K Catalysts

337

(1)

Cobalt Foil Catalysts

338

(1)

Ru/TiO2 Catalysts

338

(1)

SiO2-Supported Catalysts

339

(1)

Al2O3-Supported Catalysts

339

(1)

Fe/Mn/Rh Catalysts

340

(1)

Ni/La2O3/Ru Catalysts

340

(1)

Cu/Mo2C, Cu/Fe3C, and Cu/WC Catalysts

340

(1)

Ni/Zr Catalysts

341

(1)

BixGd1-x VO4 Catalysts

341

(1)

LaNi5 Catalysts

341

(1)

Fe/Zr/Ru Catalysts

341

(1)

Mechanochemical Activation of Catalytic Hydrogenation

342

(1)

Methanation with Water Vapor Permselective Membrane

343

(1)

Hydrogenation of Alkaline Earth Carbonates

343

(1)

Methanol Synthesis

344

(1)

ZnO Catalysts

344

(3)

ZrO2-Supported Catalysts

347

(3)

Pd/CeO2 and Pd/La2O3 Catalysts

350

(1)

Cu---Cr---Al and Cu---V---Zn Catalysts

350

(1)

On Cu and Pd Single-Crystal Surfaces

351

(1)

Reaction Intermediates and Mechanisms

351

(2)

H2 + CO2 at Atmospheric Pressure

353

(1)

Process Modeling of Methanol Synthesis

354

(1)

Heterogeneous Liquid-Phase Methanol Synthesis

355

(1)

Coupling Methanol Synthesis with Conversion to Gasoline and Olefins

355

(1)

Methanol-to-Gasoline Conversion

355

(1)

Hydrogenation of CO2 to Olefins and Liquid Hydrocarbons

356

(1)

Methanol and Ethanol Synthesis

357

(1)

Heterogeneous Catalysis

357

(1)

Homogeneous Catalysis

358

(1)

Hydrogenation to Formic Acid

359

(1)

Heterogeneous Catalysis: Formic Acid

359

(1)

Homogeneous Catalysis: Formic Acid and Methyl Formate

360

(2)

Synthesis of Methylamines and Dimethylformamide

362

(1)

Hydrogenation of CO2 in the Presence of Epoxide

362

(1)

Microwave and Dielectric Barrier Discharge-Induced Reduction

363

(1)

Sonolysis

364

(1)

Gasification of Carbon and Reducation of CO2 to Carbon

365

(3)

Gasification of Carbon

365

(1)

Reducation of CO2 to Carbon

366

(2)

Conclusions on CO2 Reforming and Hydrogenation

368

(23)

References

369

(22)

Photochemical and Radiation-Induced Activation of CO2 in Homogeneous Media

391

(20)

Introduction

391

(1)

Direct Photolysis of CO2

392

(3)

Gas-Phase Photodissociation

392

(1)

Photolysis in Aqueous Media

392

(1)

The CO3 Radical Anion

393

(1)

The CO2 Radical Anion

394

(1)

Photosensitized Reactions

395

(7)

Reduction to CO and HCOOH with Ru Complexes

395

(1)

Reduction to CO with Re Complexes

396

(2)

Reduction to CO with Macrocyclic Complexes

398

(2)

Reduction to HCOOH with Aromatic Hydrocarbons

400

(1)

Reduction to CO and HCOOH with p-Terphenyl/Cobalt Macrocycles

400

(2)

Reduction to HCOOH and CH2O with Fe(II)-Bipyridyl

402

(1)

Homogeneous Photocarboxylation

402

(2)

High-Energy Radiation-Induced Carboxylation

404

(1)

Conclusions on Photochemical Reduction of CO2

405

(6)

References

406

(5)

Electrochemical Reduction of CO2

411

(106)

Introduction

411

(1)

Reduction in Aqueous Solutions

411

(39)

Reduction on Metal Electrodes Leading to CO and HCOOH

412

(1)

Platinum Group Metal Electrodes

413

(2)

The CO2 Ion Radical

415

(1)

Gold Electrodes

415

(1)

Hg, Sn, Zn, In, Pb, Cd, Bi, and Sb Electrodes

416

(1)

Palladium Electrodes

417

(1)

Oxide Semiconductor Electrodes

418

(1)

Other Electrode Materials

419

(1)

Reduction by Corrosion of Metallic Iron

420

(1)

Reduction to Hydrocarbons

421

(1)

Copper Electrodes

422

(3)

Pulsed Electroreduction on Cu, Ag, and Au Electrodes

425

(2)

Ni vs. Cu Electrodes: Effects of Adsorption

427

(1)

Reduction to Methanol and Ethanol

428

(1)

Reduction on Palladium/Pyridine

428

(1)

Reduction on GaAs

428

(1)

Reduction on Mo, Ru, RuO2, and TiO2 Electrodes

429

(2)

Selective Ethanol Formation

431

(1)

Prussian-Blue-Coated Electrodes

432

(1)

Reduction on Films of Prussian Blue/Polyaniline

432

(1)

Films of Molybdenum-Blue/Polymethylpyrrole-Coated Electrodes

433

(1)

Alloy Electrodes

434

(1)

Cu---Ni Alloys

434

(1)

Cu---Sn and Cu---Zn Alloys

434

(1)

Cu---Ag Alloys

435

(1)

Sn---Cd and Sn---Zn Alloys

435

(1)

Mediation by Transition Metal Complexes

435

(1)

Cobalt Tetraphenylporphin

436

(1)

Tetraazamacrocyclic Ni Complexes

437

(2)

Co Phthalocyanine

439

(1)

Co Phthalocyanine/Polyvinylpyridine

440

(1)

Bipyridine and Terpyridine Complexes

441

(2)

Ti(III)- and Mo(III)-Catechol

443

(1)

Gas Diffusion Electrodes

444

(1)

Reduction to CO, Formic Acid, and Hydrocarbons

444

(4)

Urea Synthesis on Gas Diffusion Electrode

448

(1)

Electroreduction at High CO2 Pressure

448

(2)

Reduction in Organic Solvents

450

(31)

Direct Reduction

450

(1)

Mechanistic Studies

451

(2)

High-Pressure CO2 Reduction in Organic Media

453

(1)

CO2-Methanol Electrolyte

453

(1)

Electrocarboxylation

454

(1)

Sacrificial Metal Anodes

454

(1)

Production of Oxalate

454

(1)

Carboxylation of Olefins

455

(1)

Carboxylation of Carbonyl Derivatives

456

(1)

Carboxylation of Benzyl Chlorides

457

(1)

Nickel-Complex-Mediated Carboxylation of Alkenes

457

(1)

Carboxylation of Acetylenic Compounds

458

(2)

Carboxylation of Epoxides

460

(1)

Carboxylation of Vinylic, Allylic, Aromatic, and Polymeric Halides

460

(3)

Symmetrical Ketones from Organohalides and CO2

463

(1)

Metalloporphyrin-Promoted Carboxylation

463

(1)

Co(salen)-Promoted Carboxylation

464

(1)

Carboxylation of Quinones

465

(1)

Electrosynthesis of Oxazolidine-2,4-Diones

465

(1)

Reduction with Macrocycles and Metal Complexes

466

(1)

Mediation by Rhenium and Rhodium Complexes

466

(1)

Ni-Bipyridine and -Phenanthroline Complexes

467

(1)

Fe, Ni, and Co Poly(viny)terpyridine Complexes

467

(1)

Multielectron Reduction with Ru Bipyridine and Terpyridine Complexes

468

(3)

Cu, Os, Rh, and Ir Bipyridine Complexes

471

(1)

Ag, Pd, Fe, and Co Porphyrins

472

(2)

Pd(triphosphine) Complexes

474

(2)

Reduction to HCOOH with Pd-Pyridine and Pyrazole Complexes

476

(1)

Reduction to CO Mediated by Co(salen) Complexes

476

(1)

Reduction to CO with Tetraazamacrocyclic Compounds

477

(2)

Reduction with Metal Cluster Complexes

479

(2)

Reduction with CuCl2 Tertiary Phosphine Complexes

481

(1)

Reduction with Co(II) Polypyrrole Schiff Bases

481

(1)

Reduction in Molten Salt Media

481

(3)

Solid-Phase Electrolytes

484

(2)

Closed-Cycle Life Support Systems

484

(1)

Carbon Dioxide Sensors

485

(1)

Electrochemical Concentration

486

(1)

Liquid CO2 as Medium for Electrochemical Reduction

487

(1)

CO2 Oxidation to Carbonate by Aromatic Nitro Compounds

487

(1)

Conclusions on Electrochemical Reduction

488

(29)

References

488

(29)

Photoelectrochemical Reduction of CO2

517

(12)

Introduction

517

(1)

Photoelectrolysis in Aqueous Media

517

(3)

Photoreduction on Bare Semiconductors

518

(1)

Photoreduction on Metal-Modified Semiconductors

519

(1)

High-Pressure CO2 Photoelectrolysis

520

(1)

Methanol and Methane Formation

520

(1)

Photoelectrolysis in Organic Media

520

(2)

Photoreduction on Bare Semiconductors

521

(1)

Photoelectrocarboxylation

521

(1)

CO2---Methanol Electrolyte

522

(1)

Mediation by Macrocycles and Metal Complexes

522

(1)

Photoreduction on Polymer-Coated Semiconductors

523

(1)

Conclusions on Photoelectrochemical Reduction of CO2

524

(5)

References

524

(5)

Heterogeneous Photoassisted Reduction of CO2

529

(24)

Introduction

529

(1)

Primary Reaction Steps on Metals and Semiconductors

529

(2)

Photocatalysis in Aqueous Slurries

531

(2)

Metal-Treated Semiconductors

533

(2)

Solar Photoreduction

535

(1)

Colloidal Particles as Photocatalysts

535

(7)

Colloidal TiO2

537

(1)

Colloidal ZnS

538

(2)

Colloidal CdS and CdSe

540

(1)

Colloidal Pd, Ru, and Os

541

(1)

Colloidal Hydroxy-Oxobis(8-Quinolyloxo)Vanadium(V)

542

(1)

Gas---Solid Reactions

542

(2)

Photoassisted Hydrogenation

544

(1)

Photoreduction of CO2 by NH3

545

(1)

Dark CO2 Reduction on Preilluminated Catalyst

545

(1)

Photoreduction with TiO2 in Supercritical and High-Pressure CO2

545

(1)

Photocarboxylation

546

(1)

Conclusions on Heterogeneous Photoassisted Reduction

547

(6)

References

547

(6)

Conclusion on Mitigation Strategies

553

(8)

Index

561

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Greenhouse Gas Carbon Dioxide Mitigation: Science and Technology

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials