Handbook of Biological Control

, by Fisher; Bellows; Caltagirone; Dahlsten; Huffaker; Gordh

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ISBN: 9780122573057 | 0122573056
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 8/20/1999

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For many years the use of chemical agents such as pesticides and herbicides has been effective in controlling the many varieties of pests that infest both agricultural crops and backyard gardens. However, these pests are gradually becoming resistant to these agents, because the agents themselves are acting as selective factors making the pests better and better able to resist and persist. As a result, the use of biological controlling agents is increasing. This book is a comprehensive and authoritative handbook of biological control.

Contributors	p. xix
Preface and Acknowledgments	p. xxi
Introduction
Scope and Significance of Biological Control
Introduction	p. 1
Theories and Mechanisms of Natural Population Regulation
Introduction	p. 17
Single-Species Populations	p. 17
Interspecific Competition	p. 20
Host-Parasitoid Systems	p. 23
Host-Pathogen Systems	p. 33
Multispecies Systems	p. 36
References	p. 40
Principles and Processes
Taxonomy and Biological Control
Introduction	p. 45
Taxonomy: The Historical Perspective	p. 45
Contributions of Biological Control to Taxonomy	p. 48
Sources of Taxonomic Expertise	p. 49
Literature, Reference Collections, and Voucher Specimens	p. 50
Modern Systematic Tools and Techniques	p. 52
References	p. 54
Molecular Methods in Classical Biological Control
Introduction and Rationale	p. 57
Molecular Markers	p. 58
Applications in Biological Control	p. 64
Conclusions	p. 76
References	p. 76
Exploration for Natural Enemies
Introduction	p. 87
Areas for Search	p. 87
Risk Assessment and Evaluation of Natural Enemy Potential	p. 91
Planning, Preparation, and Execution of a Foreign Collecting Trip	p. 95
References	p. 98
Quarantine
Introduction	p. 103
Establishing Quarantine Facilities	p. 104
Quarantine Procedures	p. 110
Personnel	p. 121
References	p. 122
Culture and Colonization
Culture of Hosts for Entomophagous Arthropods	p. 125
Culture of Entomophagous Arthropods	p. 140
Colonization of Entomophagous Arthropods	p. 165
Addendum	p. 175
References	p. 176
Life Table Construction and Analysis for Evaluating Biological Control Agents
Introduction	p. 199
Definitions and Data Collection	p. 199
Assessing Quantitative Impact of Natural Enemies	p. 206
Determining Ecological Roles of Natural Enemies	p. 211
Experimental Designs for Life Table Studies	p. 215
Applications to Categories of Natural Enemies Other Than Parasitoids	p. 217
Conclusions	p. 219
References	p. 220
Evaluation of Biological Control with Experimental Methods
Introduction	p. 225
Evaluation Techniques	p. 226
Exclusion or Inclusion Techniques	p. 227
Assay Techniques	p. 232
Summary	p. 236
References	p. 237
Evaluation of Results
Introduction	p. 243
Naturally Occurring Biological Control	p. 244
Estimating the Benefits and Costs of Classical Biological Control	p. 244
Justifying the Need for Biological Control	p. 248
Perceived Risk	p. 249
Conclusion	p. 250
References	p. 250
Periodic Release and Manipulation of Natural Enemies
Introduction	p. 253
Augmentation	p. 253
Conservation	p. 260
Monitoring	p. 261
Rearing	p. 262
In Vitro Rearing	p. 263
Conclusions	p. 263
References	p. 264
Genetic Improvement and Other Genetic Considerations for Improving the Efficacy and Success Rate of Biological Control
Introduction	p. 271
Biological Control by Restoring a Natural Balance	p. 273
Biological Control of Secondary Pests	p. 274
Biological Control of Weeds and Pests in Novel or Disturbed Environments	p. 274
Genetic Considerations for Improved Success Rates in Biological Control	p. 276
Limited Opportunity for Genetic Improvement in Category 1 Cases of Biological Control	p. 276
Relevance of Genetic Variability in Category 1 Weeds to Their Suitability for Biological Control	p. 278
Improving Efficacy of Natural Enemies for Category 1 Weeds	p. 280
Genetic Improvement of Natural Enemies of Secondary Pests (Category 2)	p. 282
Genetic Improvement Opportunities Where the Natural Enemy Is Confronted with One or More Novel Conditions in the Environment (Category 3)	p. 286
The Scope of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering for Improving the Success Rate of Biological Control	p. 288
References	p. 290
Enhanced Biological Control through Pesticide Selectivity
Introduction	p. 297
Effects of Pesticides on Natural Enemies	p. 297
Consequences of Disrupting Biological Control	p. 302
Techniques to Reduce the Negative Impact of Chemicals on Natural Enemies	p. 304
Conclusions	p. 311
References	p. 312
Environmental Management to Enhance Biological Control in Agroecosystems
Introduction	p. 319
Classification of Agroecosystems	p. 320
Modes of Environmental Management	p. 324
Mechanisms of Enemy Enhancements	p. 335
Theoretical Aspects of Environmental Management	p. 339
Conclusions	p. 343
References	p. 344
Agents, Biology, and Methods
Biology of Parasitic Hymenoptera
Introduction	p. 355
Parasitic Hymenoptera Important in Biological Control	p. 357
Principal Aspects of Parasitoid Biology	p. 360
Ecology of Parasitic Hymenoptera	p. 368
Summary	p. 370
References	p. 371
Terrestrial Arthropod Predators of Insect and Mite Pests
Introduction	p. 383
Subphylum Chelicerata	p. 384
Subphylum Uniramia	p. 391
Conclusions	p. 460
References	p. 461
Arthropods and Vertebrates in Biological Control of Plants
Introduction	p. 505
Effects of Herbivory on Weedy Plants	p. 505
Taxa Used in Biological Control	p. 507
Attributes and Safety of Control Agents	p. 512
Agent Selection	p. 514
References	p. 515
A Perspective on Pathogens as Biological Control Agents for Insect Pests
Introduction	p. 517
Viruses	p. 521
Bacteria	p. 528
Fungi	p. 530
Protozoa	p. 536
Nematodes	p. 539
Discussion and Conclusions	p. 541
References	p. 545
Cross-Protection and Systemic Acquired Resistance for Control of Plant Diseases
Introduction	p. 549
Comparison of Cross-Protection and Systemic Acquired Resistance	p. 549
Systemic Acquired Resistance	p. 550
Cross-Protection	p. 550
Conclusions	p. 554
References	p. 554
Genetic Mechanisms for Engineering Host Resistance to Plant Viruses
Introduction	p. 557
Engineered Viral Resistance Strategies	p. 557
Transgenic Plant Performance	p. 565
Regulation and Risk Assessment	p. 567
Prospects	p. 569
References	p. 570
Bacillus thuringiensis in Biological Control
Introduction	p. 575
General Biology of Bacillus thuringiensis	p. 575
Insecticidal Proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis	p. 579
Major B.t. Pathotypes	p. 583
Commercial Products Based on Bacillus thuringiensis	p. 584
Resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Insecticides	p. 589
Transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Crops	p. 589
References	p. 591
Nutrition of Entomophagous Insects and Other Arthropods
Introduction	p. 594
Food Utilization	p. 597
Developmental Nutritional Requirements	p. 599
Feeding and Nutrition of Adult Entomophagous Species	p. 603
In Vitro Culture of Parasitoids	p. 612
In vitro Culture of Predators	p. 625
Continuous Artificial Mass Culture	p. 631
Current Applications	p. 634
Conclusions and Future Directions	p. 635
References	p. 637
Sex Ratio and Quality in the Culturing of Parasitic Hymenoptera: A Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective
Introduction	p. 653
Sex Determination	p. 653
Sex-Ratio Distorting Factors	p. 656
Sex Ratio in Heteronomous Parasitoids	p. 658
Postcopulation Fertilization Lags	p. 659
Multiple Copulations	p. 659
Temperature and Photoperiod	p. 659
Sex Allocation	p. 660
Sex Ratio and Variation in Fitness	p. 663
Local Parental Control and Variation in Fitness-Host Size Interactions	p. 664
Clutch Size and Sex Ratio	p. 664
Sex Ratio of Polyembryonic Wasps	p. 665
Summary	p. 666
References	p. 666
Evolution of Pesticide Resistance in Natural Enemies
Introduction	p. 673
Hypotheses and Evidence	p. 673
Summary and Implications	p. 686
References	p. 687
Hypovirulence to Control Fungal Pathogenesis
Introduction	p. 691
Searching for the Cause of Hypovirulence	p. 693
Hypoviruses	p. 694
Biological Control	p. 694
Treating Chestnut Trees with Hypovirulent Strains	p. 695
References	p. 696
Applications
Controlling Soil-Borne Plant Pathogens
Introduction	p. 699
Root Pathogens and Their Biological Control Agents	p. 699
Microbial and Habitat Characteristics	p. 701
Control of Soil Borne Plant Pathogens	p. 702
Developing and Using Beneficial Species	p. 709
References	p. 710
Biological Control in Subtropical and Tropical Crops
Introduction	p. 713
Citrus	p. 713
Olive	p. 727
Avocado	p. 728
Tea	p. 731
Coffee	p. 732
Coconut	p. 732
Banana	p. 734
References	p. 735
Biological Control in Deciduous Fruit Crops
Introduction	p. 743
Biological Control of Secondary Pests	p. 743
Biological Control of Direct, Primary, and Sporadic Pests	p. 750
Introduction of Exotic Biological Control Agents	p. 752
Summary of Status of Biological Control of Deciduous Fruit Pest Species	p. 755
References	p. 756
Biological Control of Forest Insects
Introduction	p. 761
Importation of Natural Enemies	p. 763
Augmentation of Natural Enemies	p. 766
Conservation of Natural Enemies	p. 768
Biological Control Organizations in Forestry	p. 769
Case Histories	p. 771
References	p. 782
Enhancement of Biological Control in Annual Agricultural Environments
Introduction	p. 789
Ecological Characteristics and Faunal Colonization Patterns	p. 789
Natural Control in Transient Crops	p. 791
Classical Biological Control	p. 794
Inundative and Augmentative Releases	p. 802
Interactions of Biological Control with Other IPM Tactics	p. 810
Conclusion	p. 811
References	p. 811
Glasshouse Environments
Introduction	p. 819
Vegetable Crops	p. 819
Factors Conducive to the Use of Biological Control in Vegetables	p. 820
Control of the Two-Spotted Spider Mite Tetranychus urticae with Pytoseiulus persimilis	p. 821
Control of Greenhouse Whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum, Using Encarsia formosa	p. 823
Control of Leafminers Using Parasites	p. 825
Control of Aphids with Parasitoids and Predators	p. 826
Control of Onion Thrips, Thrips tabaci, and Western Flower Thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis, Using Predators	p. 827
Ornamental Crops	p. 828
Summary	p. 834
References	p. 835
Foliar, Flower, and Fruit Pathogens
Introduction	p. 841
Pathogens and Their Biological Control Agents	p. 841
Habitat and Agent Characteristics	p. 843
Biological Control of Plant Pathogens	p. 844
Developing and Using Beneficial Species	p. 850
References	p. 851
Biological Control of Insects and Mites on Grapes
Introduction	p. 853
Biological Control of Insect and Mite Pests	p. 853
Conclusion	p. 865
References	p. 866
Biological Control of Weeds in Terrestrial and Aquatic Environments
Introduction	p. 871
What Is Biological Control of Weeds?	p. 871
History of Biological Control of Weeds	p. 873
Scope of Biological Control of Weeds	p. 877
Case Histories of Recent Successes in North America and Other Parts of the World	p. 880
Future Direction of Biological Control of Weeds	p. 886
References	p. 886
Use of Plant Pathogens in Weed Control
Introduction	p. 891
Biological Control Strategies	p. 891
Successful Examples Using the Classical Approach	p. 892
Commercialization and the Bioherbicide Approach	p. 893
Deleterious Rhizobacteria and Weed Control	p. 897
Developmental Testing of Mycoherbicides	p. 900
Field Assessment	p. 901
Formulation of Biological Control Agents	p. 901
Bioherbicides and Integrated Weed Management	p. 904
Biotechnology and Biological Control	p. 905
Laws Governing Biological Control Agents	p. 907
Production of Bioherbicide Agents	p. 910
References	p. 911
Biological Control of Insects in Urban Environments
Introduction	p. 919
Ecological Attributes of Urban Outdoor Environments	p. 920
Potential for Urban Biological Control	p. 920
Biological Control Case Histories	p. 921
References	p. 930
Biological Control of Medical and Veterinary Pests
Introduction	p. 935
Mosquitoes	p. 936
Synanthropic Diptera	p. 943
Snails	p. 945
References	p. 946
Biological Control of Vertebrate Pests
Introduction	p. 955
Factors That Facilitate Vertebrate Establishment	p. 956
Vertebrate Pest Management	p. 957
New Avenues for Biological Control of Vertebrates	p. 966
Regulating Vertebrate Introductions	p. 969
Biological Control of Exotic Pests as an Evolutionarily Stable Control Strategy	p. 970
References	p. 970
Classical Biological Control in Latin America: Past, Present, and Future
Introduction	p. 975
Historical Overview	p. 975
Pesticide Use in Latin America and Implied Environmental and Health Impacts	p. 976
Brief Country Profile on Classical Biological Control	p. 978
Three Contemporary Case Studies	p. 986
Centers of Biological Control in Latin America	p. 987
Possibilities for Further Work and Conclusions	p. 988
References	p. 989
Research and the Future
Social and Economic Factors Affecting Research and Implementation of Biological Control
Introduction	p. 993
The Political Economic Framework for Biological Control	p. 993
Definition of Biological Control	p. 994
Problems in Measuring Biological Control	p. 995
Allocation of Resources to Biological Control Research	p. 997
Socioeconomics of Biological Control	p. 1002
Summary of Factors Affecting Biological Control	p. 1005
Recommendation	p. 1006
References	p. 1008
Whither Hence, Prometheus? The Future of Biological Control
A Gift of Fire	p. 1011
Whither Hence?	p. 1012
Toward the Light	p. 1014
References	p. 1015
Subject Index	p. 1017
Taxonomic Index	p. 1031
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