Handbook of Chemical Vapor Deposition

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ISBN: 9780815514329 | 0815514328
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/31/1999

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Turn to this new second edition for an understanding of the latest advances in the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. CVD technology has recently grown at a rapid rate, and the number and scope of its applications and their impact on the market have increased considerably. The market is now estimated to be at least double that of a mere seven years ago when the first edition of this book was published. The second edition is an update with a considerably expanded and revised scope. Plasma CVD and metallo-organic CVD are two major factors in this rapid growth. Readers will find the latest data on both processes in this volume. Likewise, the book explains the growing importance of CVD in production of semiconductor and related applications.

Introduction and General Considerations	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Definition of CVD	p. 2
Advantages and Limitations of CVD	p. 3
Historical Perspective	p. 4
The Applications of CVD	p. 5
Profile of the CVD Business	p. 6
CVD Research	p. 6
Internationalization of the CVD/PVD Business	p. 7
Captive Production	p. 7
The Cost of CVD	p. 7
CVD Equipment	p. 8
CVD/PVD Integration	p. 8
Metallo-organic CVD and Plasma CVD	p. 8
Book Objectives	p. 9
Background References	p. 9
Periodicals	p. 10
Conferences	p. 11
References	p. 11
Fundamentals of Chemical Vapor Deposition	p. 12
Introduction	p. 12
Theoretical Analysis	p. 13
Thermodynamics of CVD	p. 14
[Delta]G Calculations and Reaction Feasibility	p. 14
Thermodynamic Equilibrium and Computer Programs	p. 17
Kinetics and Mass-Transport Mechanisms	p. 20
Deposition Sequence	p. 20
Deposition in a CVD Flow Reactor	p. 22
Boundary Layer	p. 23
Gas Velocity	p. 24
Temperature	p. 25
Reactant-Gas Concentration	p. 26
Rate-Limiting Steps	p. 27
Surface-Reaction Kinetics	p. 27
Mass Transport	p. 28
Control of Limiting Step	p. 28
Pressure as Rate-Limiting Factor	p. 29
Mathematical Expressions of the Kinetics of CVD	p. 31
Growth Mechanism and Structure of Deposit	p. 31
Deposition Mechanism and Epitaxy	p. 32
Epitaxy	p. 32
Gas Phase Precipitation	p. 33
Thermal Expansion	p. 34
Structure and Morphology of CVD Materials	p. 35
Control of CVD Microstructure	p. 39
References	p. 41
The Chemistry of CVD	p. 44
Categories of CVD Reactions	p. 44
Thermal-Decomposition (or Pyrolysis) Reactions	p. 44
Hydrogen Reduction	p. 45
Coreduction	p. 46
Metal Reduction of the Halides	p. 47
Oxidation and Hydrolysis Reactions	p. 48
CVD Precursors	p. 49
Halide Precursors	p. 50
Halogens	p. 50
Halide Formation or Halogenation	p. 51
Halide Properties	p. 52
Metal-Carbonyl Precursors	p. 53
Characteristics of the Carbonyls	p. 53
Carbonyl Preparation	p. 55
Metal Carbonyl Complexes	p. 55
Hydride Precursors	p. 57
References	p. 59
Metallo-Organic CVD (MOCVD)	p. 60
Introduction	p. 60
MOCVD Process and Equipment	p. 61
MOCVD Precursors: Alkyl, Alicyclic, and Aryl Compounds	p. 62
Alkyls	p. 63
Alicyclic Compounds	p. 63
Aryl Compounds	p. 64
Acetylacetonate Compounds	p. 67
MOCVD Reactions for the Deposition of Metals	p. 69
Aluminum	p. 69
Cadmium	p. 69
Chromium	p. 69
Copper	p. 69
Gold	p. 70
Nickel	p. 70
Platinum	p. 70
Iridium	p. 70
Rhodium	p. 71
Tin	p. 71
Titanium	p. 71
MOCVD Reactions for the Deposition of Carbides and Nitrides	p. 71
Chromium Carbide	p. 71
Titanium Carbide	p. 72
Aluminum Nitride	p. 72
Boron Nitride	p. 72
Silicon Nitride	p. 72
Titanium Nitride	p. 73
MOCVD Reactions for the Deposition of Oxides	p. 73
Aluminum Oxide	p. 73
Chromium Oxide	p. 73
Hafnium Oxide	p. 73
Iron Oxide	p. 74
Silicon Dioxide	p. 74
Tantalum Oxide	p. 74
Tin Oxide	p. 74
Titanium Oxide	p. 75
Zinc Oxide	p. 75
Zirconium Oxide	p. 75
Titanates	p. 75
Superconductors	p. 76
MOCVD Reactions for the Deposition of III-V and II-VI Compounds	p. 76
III-V Compounds	p. 76
II-VI Compounds	p. 76
General Applications of MOCVD	p. 76
References	p. 77
CVD Processes and Equipment	p. 84
Introduction	p. 84
CVD Processes	p. 84
CVD Coatings	p. 85
Composite Nature of Coatings	p. 85
Closed and Open Reactor	p. 86
Closed Reactor	p. 86
Open Reactor	p. 86
Reactant Supply	p. 87
Reactant Transport	p. 87
Reactant Purity and Contamination	p. 92
Thermal CVD: Deposition System and Reactor Design	p. 93
Heating Methods	p. 93
Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Reactors	p. 98
Exhaust and By-Product Disposal	p. 100
Laser and Photo CVD	p. 102
Laser CVD	p. 102
Photo CVD	p. 104
Chemical Vapor Infil Tration (CVI)	p. 105
Fluidized-Bed CVD	p. 107
Plasma CVD	p. 110
Principles of Plasma Deposition	p. 110
Types of Plasma	p. 111
Glow-Discharge (Microwave) Plasma	p. 112
Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR)	p. 113
RF Plasma	p. 115
Arc Plasma	p. 115
Materials Deposited by Plasma CVD	p. 120
References	p. 120
The CVD of Metals	p. 123
Introduction	p. 123
Aluminum	p. 124
Characteristics and Properties	p. 124
CVD Reactions	p. 125
Applications	p. 126
Beryllium	p. 126
Characteristics and Properties	p. 126
CVD Reactions	p. 127
Applications	p. 127
Chromium	p. 127
Characteristics and Properties	p. 127
CVD Reactions	p. 127
Applications	p. 129
Copper	p. 129
Characteristics and Properties	p. 129
CVD Reactions	p. 130
Applications	p. 130
Gold	p. 130
Characteristics and Properties	p. 130
CVD Reactions	p. 131
Applications	p. 131
Molybdenum	p. 132
Characteristics and Properties	p. 132
CVD Reactions	p. 132
Applications	p. 134
Nickel	p. 134
Characteristics and Properties	p. 134
CVD Reactions	p. 135
Applications	p. 136
Niobium (Columbium)	p. 136
Characteristics and Properties	p. 136
CVD Reactions	p. 137
Applications	p. 138
Platinum and Platinum Group Metals	p. 138
Characteristics and Properties	p. 138
Platinum	p. 138
Applications	p. 139
Iridium	p. 140
Applications	p. 140
Rhodium and Ruthenium	p. 140
Rhenium	p. 141
Characteristics and Properties	p. 141
CVD Reactions	p. 142
Applications	p. 143
Tantalum	p. 144
Characteristics and Properties	p. 144
CVD Reactions	p. 144
Applications	p. 145
Titanium	p. 145
Characteristics and Properties	p. 145
CVD Reactions	p. 146
Applications	p. 147
Tungsten	p. 147
Characteristics and Properties	p. 147
CVD Reactions	p. 148
Applications	p. 150
Other Metals	p. 150
Cadmium	p. 150
Iron	p. 151
Tin	p. 151
Intermetallics	p. 151
Titanium Aluminides	p. 152
Ferro-Nickel	p. 152
Nickel-Chromium	p. 153
Tungsten-Thorium	p. 153
Niobium-Germanium	p. 153
References	p. 153
The CVD of the Allotropes of Carbon	p. 161
The Allotropes of Carbon	p. 161
The CVD of Graphite	p. 162
Structure of Graphite	p. 162
Properties of CVD Graphite	p. 162
The CVD of Graphite	p. 163
Deposition Mechanism	p. 165
Structural Features of CVD Graphite	p. 165
Effects of Deposition Parameters	p. 167
Plasma-CVD of Graphite	p. 168
Fluidized-Bed CVD of Graphite	p. 169
Applications of CVD Graphite	p. 169
The CVD of Diamond	p. 170
The Structure of Diamond	p. 170
Characteristics and Properties of Diamond	p. 170
Deposition Mechanism of CVD Diamond	p. 171
CVD Processes for Diamond: Plasma Deposition	p. 175
Thermal CVD (Hot Filament)	p. 179
Applications of CVD Diamond	p. 180
The CVD of Diamond-Like-Carbon (DLC)	p. 182
Structure of DLC	p. 182
Graphite, Diamond, and DLC	p. 182
Summary of the Properties of DLC	p. 183
The CVD of DLC	p. 184
Applications of DLC	p. 186
References	p. 187
The CVD of Non-Metallic Elements	p. 193
Introduction	p. 193
The CVD of Boron	p. 193
Properties of Boron	p. 193
CVD Reactions	p. 194
Applications	p. 195
The CVD of Silicon	p. 195
Characteristics and Properties of Silicon	p. 195
CVD Reactions	p. 197
Applications of CVD Silicon	p. 199
The CVD of Germanium	p. 200
Characteristics and Properties	p. 200
CVD Reactions	p. 201
Applications	p. 202
References	p. 202
The CVD of Ceramic Materials: Carbides	p. 207
Introduction	p. 207
Refractory-Metal (Interstitial) Carbides	p. 208
Non-Metallic (Covalent) Carbides	p. 209
The CVD of Boron Carbide	p. 210
Characteristics and Properties	p. 210
CVD Reactions	p. 212
Applications	p. 212
The CVD of Chromium Carbide	p. 213
Characteristics and Properties	p. 213
CVD Reactions	p. 213
Applications	p. 213
The CVD of Hafnium Carbide	p. 215
Characteristics and Properties	p. 215
CVD Reactions	p. 215
Applications	p. 217
The CVD of Niobium Carbide	p. 217
Characteristics and Properties	p. 217
CVD Reactions	p. 218
Applications	p. 219
The CVD of Silicon Carbide	p. 219
Characteristics and Properties	p. 219
CVD Reactions	p. 221
Applications	p. 222
The CVD of Tantalum Carbide	p. 223
Characteristics and Properties	p. 223
CVD Reactions	p. 225
Applications	p. 225
The CVD of Titanium Carbide	p. 225
Characteristics and Properties	p. 225
CVD Reactions	p. 227
Applications	p. 228
The CVD of Tungsten Carbide	p. 229
Characteristics and Properties	p. 229
CVD Reactions	p. 231
Applications	p. 231
The CVD of Zirconium Carbide	p. 232
Characteristics and Properties	p. 232
CVD Reactions	p. 232
Applications	p. 234
The CVD of Miscellaneous Carbides	p. 234
References	p. 235
The CVD of Ceramic Materials: Nitrides	p. 241
General Characteristics of Nitrides	p. 241
Refractory-Metal (Interstitial) Nitrides	p. 241
Covalent Nitrides	p. 242
The CVD of Aluminum Nitride	p. 243
Characteristics and Properties	p. 243
CVD Reactions	p. 245
Applications	p. 246
The CVD of Hexagonal Boron Nitride	p. 246
Characteristics and Properties of h-BN	p. 246
CVD Reactions	p. 248
Applications	p. 249
The CVD of Cubic Boron Nitride	p. 250
Characteristics and Properties of c-BN	p. 250
CVD Reactions	p. 251
Other Boron Nitride Structures	p. 251
The CVD of Hafnium Nitride	p. 251
Characteristics and Properties	p. 251
CVD Reactions	p. 253
Applications	p. 253
The CVD of Niobium Nitride	p. 254
Characteristics and Properties	p. 254
CVD Reactions	p. 255
Applications	p. 255
The CVD of Silicon Nitride	p. 255
Characteristics and Properties	p. 255
CVD Reactions	p. 256
Applications	p. 258
The CVD of Titanium Nitride	p. 259
Characteristics and Properties	p. 259
CVD Reactions	p. 261
Applications	p. 263
The CVD of Titanium Carbonitride	p. 263
The CVD of Other Nitrides	p. 264
References	p. 264
The CVD of Ceramic Materials: Oxides	p. 271
Introduction	p. 271
Aluminum Oxide	p. 272
Characteristics and Properties	p. 272
CVD Reactions	p. 272
Applications	p. 274
Chromium Oxide	p. 274
Characteristics and Properties	p. 274
CVD Reactions	p. 275
Applications	p. 275
Hafnium Oxide	p. 276
Characteristics and Properties	p. 276
CVD Reactions	p. 276
Applications	p. 277
Silicon Dioxide	p. 278
Characteristics and Properties	p. 278
CVD Reactions	p. 279
Applications	p. 281
Tantalum Oxide	p. 281
Characteristics and Properties	p. 281
CVD Reactions	p. 282
Applications	p. 283
Tin Oxide	p. 283
Characteristics and Properties	p. 283
CVD Reactions	p. 284
Applications	p. 284
Titanium Oxide	p. 285
Characteristics and Properties	p. 285
CVD Reactions	p. 285
Applications	p. 286
Zirconium Oxide	p. 287
Characteristics and Properties	p. 287
CVD Reactions	p. 288
Applications	p. 289
Other Oxides	p. 289
Iron Oxide	p. 290
Zinc Oxide	p. 290
Mixed Oxides and Glasses	p. 291
Titanates	p. 291
Magnesia Aluminate (Spinel)	p. 292
Glasses	p. 292
Oxide Superconductors	p. 293
References	p. 293
The CVD of Ceramic Materials: Borides, Silicides, III-V Compounds and II-VI Compounds (Chalcogenides)	p. 299
Borides	p. 299
General Characteristics and Properties	p. 299
Boriding	p. 300
Direct Boride Deposition	p. 301
Applications	p. 303
Silicides	p. 303
Characteristics and Properties	p. 303
Siliconizing	p. 304
Molybdenum Disilicide	p. 305
Applications	p. 306
Tantalum Disilicide	p. 306
Applications	p. 306
Titanium Disilicide	p. 307
Applications	p. 307
Tungsten Disilicide	p. 308
Applications	p. 308
Other Silicides	p. 309
III-V Compounds	p. 309
Characteristics and Properties	p. 309
CVD Reactions	p. 311
Applications	p. 312
II-VI Compounds (Chalcogenides)	p. 312
Characteristics and Properties	p. 312
CVD Reactions	p. 314
Applications	p. 315
References	p. 315
CVD in Electronic Applications: Semiconductors	p. 321
Introduction	p. 321
Electronic Functions and Systems	p. 322
Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators	p. 323
Categories of Electronic Devices	p. 324
Modern Circuit Characteristics	p. 324
Three-Dimensional Structures	p. 325
Strained-Layer Superlattice (SLS)	p. 326
Thermal Budget	p. 327
CVD In Electronic Technology	p. 328
Silicon	p. 328
Comparison of Properties	p. 328
Single Crystal Processing	p. 330
Epitaxial Silicon	p. 330
Polysilicon	p. 331
Germanium	p. 332
III-V And II-VI Compounds	p. 332
General Characteristics	p. 332
Gallium Arsenide	p. 333
Other Gallium Compounds	p. 333
Silicon Carbide	p. 335
General Characteristics	p. 335
Advantages of Silicon Carbide	p. 336
Thermal Stability	p. 336
Diamond	p. 337
General Characteristics	p. 337
Advantages of Semiconductor Diamond	p. 338
Drawbacks of Diamond Semiconductor	p. 338
Potential Applications	p. 339
Processing Equipment for CVD Electronic Materials	p. 339
References	p. 340
CVD in Electronic Applications: Conductors, Insulators, and Diffusion Barriers	p. 343
Introduction	p. 343
The CVD of Electrical Conductors	p. 343
Step Coverage and Conformity	p. 343
Aluminum and Electromigration	p. 345
Refractory Metals	p. 345
Copper	p. 347
Silicides	p. 347
Trends in Metallization	p. 348
The CVD of Electrical Insulators (Dielectrics)	p. 349
Silicon Dioxide (SiO[subscript 2])	p. 349
Silicon Nitride	p. 350
The CVD of Substrates (Heat Sinks)	p. 350
The Need for Heat Dissipation	p. 350
Heat-Sink Materials	p. 351
Diamond Heat-Sinks	p. 351
The CVD of Diffusion Barriers	p. 352
Principle of Diffusion Barriers	p. 352
Diffusion Barrier Materials	p. 353
Example of Diffusion Barrier	p. 354
The CVD of Superconductors	p. 355
References	p. 356
CVD in Optoelectronic and Ferroelectric Applications	p. 360
CVD in Optoelectronics	p. 360
Optoelectronic Materials	p. 362
Critical Properties	p. 362
Silicon	p. 362
III-V and II-VI Compounds	p. 362
Optoelectronic CVD Applications	p. 363
Light Emitting Diodes (LED)	p. 365
Light Detectors	p. 366
Semiconductor Lasers	p. 367
MOCVD and MBE	p. 368
CVD in Photovoltaic	p. 369
Photovoltaic Principle and Operation	p. 369
Photovoltaic Materials and Processing	p. 370
Photovoltaic Applications	p. 373
CVD in Ferroelectricity	p. 374
CVD Ferroelectric Materials	p. 375
Applications of Ferroelectric CVD Materials	p. 376
References	p. 376
CVD in Optical Applications	p. 379
Introduction	p. 379
Optical Characteristics	p. 380
Optical Materials Produced by CVD	p. 381
Optical Applications of CVD	p. 382
Antireflection Coatings	p. 382
Reflective Coatings	p. 383
Heat and Light Separation Coatings	p. 383
Electrically Conductive Transparent Coatings	p. 386
Architectural-Glass Coating	p. 387
Infrared Optics	p. 390
Trends in CVD Optical Applications	p. 392
CVD in Optical-Fiber Processing	p. 393
Optical Considerations	p. 393
CVD Production of Optical Fibers	p. 396
Infrared (IR) Transmission	p. 399
References	p. 400
CVD in Wear- and Corrosion-Resistant Applications	p. 402
Introduction	p. 402
Wear Mechanisms	p. 403
Mechanical Wear	p. 404
Corrosive Wear	p. 405
Temperature Effects	p. 405
CVD Materials for Wear- and Corrosion-Resistance	p. 406
Wear- and Corrosion-Resistance Materials	p. 406
Wear and Corrosion Resistance Applications of CVD Coatings	p. 410
CVD in Corrosion-Resistant Applications	p. 412
CVD Metals for Corrosion Resistance Applications	p. 413
CVD Borides for Corrosion-Resistance Applications	p. 415
CVD Carbides for Corrosion-Resistance Applications	p. 416
CVD Nitrides for Corrosion-Resistant Applications	p. 417
CVD Oxides for Corrosion-Resistance Applications	p. 418
CVD Silicides for Corrosion-Resistance Applications	p. 419
Oxidation Protection of Carbon-Carbon Composites	p. 419
Decorative Applications of CVD	p. 422
Nuclear Applications of CVD	p. 422
Nuclear-Fission Applications	p. 422
Nuclear Fusion Applications	p. 422
Biomedical Applications of CVD	p. 423
References	p. 425
CVD in Cutting-Tool Applications	p. 428
Introduction	p. 428
Cutting-Tool Requirements	p. 429
Categories of Machining	p. 429
Wear and Failure Mechanisms	p. 430
Coating Processes and Substrate Interaction	p. 430
Cutting-Tool Materials (Substrate)	p. 432
High-Speed Tool Steel	p. 432
Cemented-Carbide Cutting Tools	p. 433
Ceramic Cutting Tools	p. 433
Diamond Cutting Tools	p. 434
Cubic Boron Nitride (c-BN) Cutting Tools	p. 435
Cutting-Tool Materials (Coatings)	p. 436
Titanium Compounds	p. 436
Diamond and DLC Coatings	p. 438
References	p. 438
CVD in Fiber, Powder, and Monolithic Applications	p. 440
Introduction	p. 440
CVD in Fiber Applications	p. 440
Competing Processes	p. 441
Materials and Applications of Inorganic Fibers	p. 441
The CVD Process for Fiber Production	p. 443
The CVD of Boron Fibers	p. 444
The CVD of Silicon-Carbide Fibers	p. 446
Other Refractory-Fiber Materials	p. 448
CVD Coatings for Fibers	p. 449
Whiskers	p. 450
CVD in Powder Applications	p. 451
Ceramic-Powder Production	p. 451
CVD Process for Ceramic-Powder Production	p. 451
CVD Metal Powders	p. 453
Coated Powders by CVD	p. 454
CVD in Monolithic and Composite Applications	p. 454
Graphite, Carbon-Carbon, and Boron Nitride CVD Structures	p. 455
Monolithic Metallic Structures	p. 456
CVD Ceramic Composites	p. 457
References	p. 458
Conversion Guide	p. 462
Alternative Processes for Thin-Film Deposition and Surface Modification	p. 466
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)	p. 466
Evaporation	p. 467
Principle of Evaporation	p. 467
Reactive Evaporation	p. 467
Plasma Evaporation	p. 468
Molecular Beam Epitaxy	p. 468
Typical Applications of Evaporation	p. 468
Sputtering	p. 469
Principle of Sputtering	p. 469
Reactive Sputtering	p. 470
Sputtering Techniques	p. 470
Examples of Sputtered Films	p. 471
Ion Plating	p. 471
Thermal Spray	p. 472
Principle of Thermal Spray	p. 472
Heat Sources	p. 472
Reactive Thermal Spray	p. 473
Typical Applications	p. 473
Solgel	p. 473
References	p. 474
Index	p. 475
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