How to Write Anything A Guide and Reference

New selections are indicated with an asterisk (*).

Part 1: Concepts of College Writing
1 Academic Goals and Expectations

Know that writing is more than avoiding grammar errors
Don’t make writing harder than it is
Take advantage of your instructor’s office hour
Use the writing center
Think of writing as a process
Think of yourself as a writer
VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Use the Writing Center

2 Defining Genres and Purposes

Appreciate what genres are
Understand why writers rely on genres
Using genres to meet assignments
Understand subgenres
Genres and subgenres in How to Write Anything

3 Imagining Audiences

Consider what your audiences expect
Consider who else your readers might be
Make adjustments for your readers
Define who your readers should be

4 Understanding Style and Design

Appreciate the choices you have
Strive for clarity in academic writing
Use language that respects audiences
Appreciate that design is part of style

Part 2: Key Academic Genres
5 Narratives

Defining the genre

Make a point — usually
Tell a story
Offer details
Focus on people
LITERACY NARRATIVE: Laura Grisham, Literacy Narrative

Claiming a topic

Brainstorm
Choose a manageable subject
Choose a consequential subject
Choose a puzzling subject

Imagining your audience

Gathering materials
Talk to the people involved
Trust your experiences
Consult personal documents

Organizing ideas

Consider a conventional structure
Build toward a climax
Give your readers directions
Use headings and transitions

Choosing a style and design

Don’t hesitate to use first person
Use figures of speech, such as similes, metaphors, and analogies, to make memorable comparisons
In choosing verbs, favor active rather than passive voice
Keep the language simple

Examining models

ARGUMENTATIVE NARRATIVE: Leah Vann, Bald Is NOT Beautiful
PERSONAL STATEMENT: Michael Villaverde, Application Essay for Academic Service Partnership Foundation Internship
Assignments

6 Reports

Defining the genre

Present information
Find reliable sources
Aim for objectivity
Present information clearly
FEATURE STORY: Cat Vasko, Grocery Store Economics: Why Are Rotisserie Chickens So Cheap?

Claiming a topic

Answer questions
Review what is already known about a subject
Report new knowledge

Imagining your audience

Suppose you are the expert
Suppose you are the novice
Suppose you are the peer

Gathering materials

Base reports on the best available sources
Base reports on diverse sources
Fact-check your report

Organizing ideas

Organize by date, time, or sequence
Organize by magnitude or order of importance
Organize by division
Organize by classification
Organize by position, location, or space
Organize by definition
Organize by comparison/contrast
Organize by thesis statement

Choosing style and design

Present the facts cleanly
Keep out of it
Avoid connotative language
Pay attention to elements of design

Examining models

ACADEMIC RESEARCH REPORT: Susan Wilcox, Marathons for Women
*INFOGRAPHIC: Australian Academy of Science, Noise Pollution and Animals
Assignments

7 Explanations

Defining the genre

Don’t jump to conclusions
Appreciate your limits
Offer sufficient evidence for claims
*CAUSAL ANALYSIS: Kendall Powell, What Electronic Games Can Teach Us

Claiming a topic

Look again at a subject you know well
Look for an issue new to you
Examine a local issue
Choose a challenging subject
Tackle an issue that seems settled

Imagining your audience

Create an audience
Write to an existing audience

Gathering materials

Understand necessary causes
Understand sufficient causes
Understand precipitating causes
Understand proximate causes
Understand remote causes
Understand reciprocal causes

Organizing ideas

Explain why something happened
Explain the consequences of a phenomenon
Suggest an alternative explanation
Explain a chain of causes

Choosing style and design

Consider a middle style
Use appropriate supporting media

Examining models

RESEARCH STUDY: Alysha Behn, Where Have All the Women Gone?
*FLOW DIAGRAM: U.S. Department of Transportation, Connected Vehicles
Assignments

8 Arguments

Defining the genre

Offer levelheaded and disputable claims
Offer good reasons to support a claim
Understand opposing claims and points of view
Frame arguments powerfully—and not in words only
*ARGUMENT TO ADVANCE A THESIS: Seth Templeton, An Open Letter to a Protester from a Baltimore County Police Officer

Claiming a topic

State a preliminary claim, if only for yourself
Qualify your claim to make it reasonable
Examine your core assumptions

Imagining your audience

Consider and control your ethos
Consider self-imposed limits
Consider the worlds of your readers

Gathering materials

List your reasons
Assemble your hard evidence
Cull the best quotations
Find counterarguments
Consider emotional appeals

Organizing ideas

Make a point or build toward one
Spell out what’s at stake
Address counterpoints when necessary, not in a separate section
Save your best arguments for the end

Choosing style and design

Invite readers with a strong opening
Write vibrant sentences
Ask rhetorical questions
Use images and design to make a point

Examining a model

REFUTATION ARGUMENT: Ryan Young, Self-Driving Cars: A Reality Check
Assignments

9 Evaluations

Defining the genre

Explain your mission
Establish and defend criteria
Offer convincing evidence
Offer worthwhile advice
CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Megan McArdle, Serena Williams Is Not the Best Tennis Player

Claiming a topic

Evaluate a subject you know well
Evaluate a subject you need to investigate
Evaluate a subject you’d like to know more about
Evaluate a subject that’s been on your mind

Imagining your audience

Write for experts
Write for a general audience
Write for novices

Gathering materials

Decide on your criteria
Look for hard criteria
Argue for criteria that can’t be measured
Stand by your values
Gather your evidence

Organizing ideas

Choose a simple structure when your criteria and categories are predictable
Choose a focal point
Compare and contrast

Choosing a style and design

Use a high or formal style
Use a middle style
Use a low style
Present evaluations visually

Examining models

*MOVIE REVIEW: Roger Ebert, Review of Do The Right Thing
SOCIAL SATIRE/VISUAL ARGUMENT: Andy Singer, Intravenous Smartphones
Assignments

10 Proposals

Defining the genre

Define a problem
Make specific recommendations
Target the proposal
Consider plausible alternatives
Make realistic recommendations
TRIAL BALLOON: Glenn Harlan Reynolds, To Reduce Inequality, Abolish Ivy League

Claiming a topic

Look for a genuine issue
Look for a challenging problem
Look for a soluble problem
Look for a local issue

Understanding your audience

Appeal to people who can make a difference
Rally people who represent public opinion

Gathering materials

Define the problem
Examine prior solutions
Outline a proposal
Defend the proposal
Figure out how to implement the proposal

Organizing ideas
Choosing style and design

Use a formal style
Use a middle style, when appropriate
Pay attention to elements of design

Examining models

MANIFESTO: Ellen Airhart, Join the Revolution: Eat More Bugs
VISUAL PROPOSAL: Jen Sorensen, Pod People
Assignments

11 Literary Analyses

Defining the genre

Begin with a close reading
Make a claim or an observation
Use texts for evidence
Present literature in context
Draw on previous research
CULTURAL REFLECTION: Dana Gioia, Why Literature Matters: Good Books Help Make a Civil Society

Claiming a topic

Choose a text, genre, or literary/cultural perspective you connect with
Choose a topic you want to learn more about
Choose a text or topic you don’t understand

Imagining your audience

Clearly identify the author and works you are analyzing
Define key terms
Don’t aim to please professional critics

Gathering materials

Examine the “text” closely
Focus on the text itself
Focus on meanings, themes, and interpretations
Focus on authorship and history
Focus on genre
Focus on influences
Focus on social connections
Find good sources

Organizing ideas

Imagine a structure
Work on your opening

Choosing style and design

Use a formal style for most assignments
Use a middle style for informal or literacy narratives
Follow the conventions of academic literary analysis
Cite plays correctly
Explore alternative media

Examining a model

CLOSE READING: Kanaka Sathasivan, Insanity: Two Women
ARTS/CULTURE ANALYSIS: Soup Martinez, Review of Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger
Assignments

12 Rhetorical Analyses

Defining the genre

Take words and images seriously
Spend time with texts
Pay attention to audiences
Mine texts and rhetorical occasions for evidence
*RHETORICAL ANALYSIS: Danielle Kurtzleben, When Republicans Attack “Cancel Culture,” What Does It Mean?

Claiming a topic

Make a difference
Choose a text you can work with
Choose a text you can learn more about
Choose a text with handles
Choose a text you know how to analyze

Imagining your audience
Gathering materials

Consider the ethos of the author
Consider how a writer plays to emotions
Consider how well reasoned a text is

Organizing ideas
Choosing style and design

Consider a high style
Consider a middle style
Make the text accessible to readers

Examining models

*DISCOURSE/CRITICAL ANALYSIS: Bari Weiss, Resignation Letter
ANALYSIS OF AN ARGUMENT: Matthew James Nance, A Mockery of Justice
Assignments

Part 3: Special College and Workplace Genres
13 Essay Examinations

Understanding essay exams

Anticipate the types of questions to be asked
Read exam questions carefully
Sketch out a plan for your essay(s)
Organize your answers strategically
Offer strong evidence for your claims
Come to a conclusion
Keep the tone serious
Keep your eye on the clock

Getting the details right

Use topic sentences and transitions
Do a quick check of grammar, mechanics, and spelling
Write legibly or print

Examining a model

ESSAY EXAMINATION: Wade Lamb, Essay for Classical Modern Rhetoric

14 Annotated Bibliographies

Understanding bibliographies

Begin with an accurate record of research materials
Record every detail you will need to create an accurate citation
Use annotations to assess the significance or quality of the work
Use annotations to explain the role a work plays in your research
Follow a single documentation style
Record the information on your sources accurately
Keep summaries and assessments brief
Follow the directions carefully

Examining a model

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: Annotated Bibliography from a Topic Proposal (Excerpt)

15 Syntheses

Understanding synthesis papers

Pay close attention to the actual assignment
Identify reputable sources on your subject
Summarize and paraphrase the works you have identified
Look for connections between your sources
Provide a context for your topic
Tell a story
Acknowledge disagreements and rebuttals
Cite materials that both support and challenge your own thesis
Pay attention to language
Be sure to document your sources

Examining a model

SYNTHESIS PAPER: Lauren Chiu, Time to Adapt?

16 Oral Presentations

Understanding oral reports

Choose your subject well
Know your stuff
Highlight arresting details
Organize your presentation
Keep your audience on track
Stay connected to your listeners
Use your voice and body
Adapt your material to the time available
Practice your talk
Prep for the occasion

Getting the details right

Be certain you need presentation software
Use slides to introduce points, not cover them
Use a simple and consistent design
Consider alternatives to slide-based presentations
Learn the rhetoric of poster sessions

Examining a model

ORAL PRESENTATION: PowerPoint Presentation on Giving an Oral Report

17 Résumés

Understanding résumés

Gather the necessary information
Decide on appropriate categories
Arrange the information within categories strategically
Design pages that are easy to read

Getting the details right

Proofread every line in the résumé several times
Don’t leave unexplained gaps in your education or work career
Be consistent and efficient
Protect your personal data
Look for help

Examining a model

RÉSUMÉ: Taylor Rowane

18 Emails and Business Letters

Understanding email

Assess the situation
Explain your purpose clearly and logically
Tell readers what you want or expect from them
Write for intended audiences
Write for unintended audiences too
Keep messages brief
Distribute your messages sensibly

Getting the details right: email

Use informative subject lines
Arrange your text sensibly
Include an appropriate signature
Use standard grammar
Check the recipient list before you hit send
Don’t be a pain

Getting the details right: conventional business letters

Use consistent margins and spacing for print documents
Finesse the greeting
Distribute paper copies of a letter, if necessary
Photocopy any paper letter as a record
Don’t forget any promised enclosures
Fold a paper business letter correctly and send it in a suitable

Examining models

EMAIL: Typical e-mail query
COVER LETTER: Typical cover letter

19 Writing Portfolios

Understanding writing portfolios

Take charge of the portfolio assignment
Appreciate the audiences for a portfolio
Present authentic materials
Take reflections seriously

Getting the details right

Polish your portfolio
Understand the portfolio activities
Give honest feedback to classmates

Examining a model

WRITING PORTFOLIO: Desiree Lopez, Midterm Reflection on an Internship Course

Part 4: A Writer’s Routines
20 Smart Reading

Recall the basics
Read to deepen what you already know
Read above your level of knowledge
Read what makes you uncomfortable
Read against the grain
Read slowly
Annotate what you read

21 Critical Thinking

Think in terms of claims and reasons
Think in terms of premises and assumptions
Think in terms of evidence
Anticipate objections
Avoid logical fallacies

22 Claiming Topics

Follow routines that support invention
Browse course materials
Search online
Build from lists
Map your ideas
Try freewriting
Use memory prompts
VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Browse for Ideas

23 Gathering Materials

Gather information from reputable and appropriate sources
Use the research tools your school provides
Look for diverse sources representing a respected range of opinion
Pay attention to dates
Use an adequate number of sources
Be sure to collect and document your sources systematically

24 Shaping a Thesis

Compose a complete sentence
Make a significant claim or assertion
Write a declarative sentence, not a question
Expect your thesis to mature
Introduce a thesis early in a project
Or state a thesis late in a project
Write a thesis to fit your audience and purpose

25 Developing Ideas

Use description to set a scene
Use division to divide a subject
Use classification to sort objects or ideas by consistent principles
Use definition to clarify meaning
Use comparison and contrast to show similarity and difference

26 Organizing Ideas

Examine model documents
Sketch out a plan or sequence
Try reverse outlining
Provide cues or signals for readers
Deliver on your commitments
Appreciate the value in varying structure

27 Outlining

Begin with a scratch outline
Look for relationships
Subordinate ideas
Prepare a complete outline if required

28 Revising, Editing, and Proofreading

Revise to see the big picture
Edit to make the paper flow
Proofread to get the details right
VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Revise Your Work

29 Peer Reviewing

Peer edit the same way you revise your own work
Be specific in identifying problems or opportunities
Offer suggestions for improvement
Praise what is genuinely good in the paper
Use proofreading symbols
Keep comments tactful and confidential
VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Insert a Comment in a Word Document

30 Overcoming Writer’s Block

Break the project into parts
Set manageable goals
Create a calendar
Limit distractions
Do the parts you like first
Write a zero draft
Reward yourself

Part 5: Style
31 Levels of Style

Use high style for formal, scientific, and scholarly writing
Use middle style for personal, argumentative, and some academic writing
Use a low style for personal, informal, and even playful writing

32 Clear and Vigorous Writing

Build sentences around specific and tangible subjects and objects
Look for opportunities to use specific nouns and noun phrases rather than general ones
Avoid sprawling phrases
Avoid sentences with long windups
Favor simple, active verbs
Avoid strings of prepositional phrases
Don’t repeat key words close together
Avoid doublings
Turn clauses into more direct modifiers
Cut introductory expressions such as it is and there is/are when you can
Vary your sentence lengths and structures
Read aloud what you have written
Cut a first draft by 25 percent—or more

33 Inclusive Writing

Avoid expressions that stereotype genders or sexual orientation
Avoid expressions that stereotype races, ethnic groups, or religious groups
Handle pronouns appropriately
Treat all people with respect
Avoid sensational language

34

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