Human Rights in Criminal Proceedings

, by Trechsel, Stefan; Summers, Sarah J.

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ISBN: 9780198299363 | 0198299362
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 6/16/2005

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This book examines the rights of accused persons in criminal proceedings. The case-law of the international bodies dealing with this issue is presented and critically examined by an author who has contributed to its creation for almost a quarter of a century. He places particular emphasis on the European Court and Commission of Human Rights.

Acknowledgements

vii

Tables of Cases

xxxv

I. Judgments and Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights

xxxv

II. Decisions of the European Commission of Human Rights-Alphabetical

lxxiv

III. Decisions of the European Commission of Human Rights-Numerical

lxxxviii

IV. Article 31 Reports of the European Commission on Human Rights-Alphabetical

xcix

V. Decisions and Views of the Human Rights Committee under Article 28 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

cii

VI. Judgments of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights

VII. Decisions of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

cvi

List of Abbreviations

cvii

Part One Introduction

Chapter 1. About this Book

I. The Subject

(5)

A. Definitions

(3)

1. 'Human Rights'

(2)

2. Criminal Proceedings

(1)

3. Limitations, Exclusions

(13)

(a) The Procedures for the Implementation of Human Rights

(1)

(b) The International Criminal Court(s)

(1)

(d) Domestic Case-law

(1)

B. The Importance of the Subject

(2)

II. The Perspectives

(4)

A. The Geographical Perspective

(1)

B. The Legal Perspective

(1)

C. The 'Political' Perspective

(1)

D. The 'Scientific' Perspective

(1)

III. The Structure of the Book

(1)

Chapter 2. The Scope of Application of the Right to a Fair Trial in Criminal Matters

I. Introduction

(1)

A. The Texts

(1)

B. Three Aspects Concerning the Scope of the Provision

(1)

II. The Notion of 'Criminal'

(17)

A. General Observations

(1)

B. The Autonomous Notion of the Term 'Criminal Charge'

(2)

C. The Three Criteria First Established in Engel

(2)

D. The Substance of the Three Criteria

(10)

1. The Classification of the Offence under National Law

(1)

2. The Nature of the Offence

(3)

(a) Not to be Confused with the Nature of Proceedings

(1)

(b) General Considerations

(1)

(d) Offences of a 'Mixed Character'

(1)

3. The Nature and Degree of Severity of the Sanction Incurred

(4)

(a) Deprivation of Liberty

(1)

(b) Pecuniary Sanctions

(2)

(1)

(d) Actual, Probable, or Possible Severity of the Sanction?

(1)

4. The Scope of the Sanction

(1)

5. The Relationship Between the Different Criteria

(1)

E. Disciplinary Matters as 'Civil Rights and Obligations'

(1)

F. Critical Appraisal of the Case-law of the Court

(2)

III. The Notion of 'Charge'

(5)

A. General Observations

(1)

B. The Term 'Charge' as an Autonomous Notion

(1)

C. Procedural Steps to which Article 6 Applies

(1)

D. Procedural Steps to which Article 6 Does Not Apply

(3)

1. Habeus Corpus Proceedings

(1)

2. Confiscation Orders

(1)

3. Immediate Confiscation of a Driving Licence

(1)

4. Proceedings in Relation to a Retrial

(1)

5. Extradition Proceedings

(1)

6. Proceedings for Challenging the Impartiality of a Judge

(1)

IV. Rights of the Victim

(9)

A. The Starting Point

(1)

B. Inconsistencies

(1)

C. The Case-law Prior to Perez v. France

(2)

D. The Judgment in Perez v. France

(1)

E. A Critical Appraisal

(4)

Part Two The General Fair Trial Guarantees

Chapter 3. The Right to an Independent and Impartial Tribunal

I. Introduction

(5)

A. The Texts

(1)

B. The Origins of the Guarantee

(1)

C. The Importance of the Right to an Independent and Impartial Tribunal

(1)

D. The Definition of 'Tribunal'

(1)

E. The References to a Judge, a Tribunal, or a Court in the Convention

(1)

F. The Relationship Between the Requirements of 'Independence', 'Impartiality', and 'Established by Law'

(1)

II. A Tribunal Established by Law

(3)

III. Independence

(8)

A. The Manner of Appointment

(1)

B. The Term of Office

(1)

C. Safeguards Against Outside Pressure

(1)

D. The Appearance of Independence

(1)

E. Additional Aspects of Independence

(4)

1. The Authority of the Judgment

(1)

2. The Autonomy of the Tribunal

(1)

3. Civil Servants as Members of a Tribunal

(1)

4. Military Judges Sitting in an Ordinary Court

(1)

IV. Impartiality

(19)

A. Definition

(1)

B. The Objective and the Subjective Approach

(2)

C. Lack of Impartiality Because of Personal Bias

(3)

D. Lack of Impartiality Under the Objective Test

(15)

1. Lack of Impartiality Due to Prior Involvement of the Judge in the Same Case

(12)

(a) As a Prosecutor

(2)

(b) As a Member of the Police

(1)

(3)

(d) As Member of a Body Responsible for Preparing the Indictment

(2)

(e) Having Taken One or More Decisions Regarding the Defendant's Detention

(1)

(f) As a Judge on the Merits

(1)

(g) As a Member of the Conseil d'Etat which had Given an Opinion on the Regulations at Issue

(1)

(h) In a Combination of Multiple Functions

(1)

(i) Conclusion

(1)

2. Lack of Impartiality Due to an Affiliation to One of the Parties

(1)

3. Procedural Issues

(1)

V. Conclusion

(1)

Chapter 4. The General Right to a Fair Trial

I. Introduction

(8)

A. The Texts

(1)

B. The Origins

(1)

C. Importance and Purpose

(2)

D. The Scope of the Right to a Fair Trial

(2)

E. The Relationship Between the General Rule and the Specific Rights: Evaluation of the Proceedings 'As a Whole'

(3)

II. The Right to Adversarial Proceedings

(5)

A. The Principle and its Meaning

(1)

B. The Definition

(1)

C. The Characteristics of the Guarantee

(1)

D. The Case-law

(3)

1. Submissions of the Procurator General to Supreme Jurisdictions

(1)

2. The Duty to Disclose Evidence

(5)

(a) Material Withheld by the Prosecuting Authority

(2)

(b) Duty of the Court to Disclose

(1)

III. The Principle of Equality of Arms

(8)

A. The Principle

(2)

B. The Definition

(1)

C. Aspects of Equality

(2)

1. The Relativity of Equality

(1)

2. The Importance of the Presence of the Prosecution at the Hearing

(1)

3. The Abstract Value of Equality

(1)

D. The Case-law

(3)

1. The Presence of a Prosecutor at the Deliberations of the Court

(1)

2. Privileged Information for the Prosecution

100

(2)

(a) Failure to Inform the Appellant of the Date of the Hearing before the French cour de cassation

101

(1)

(b) Communication of the Rapporteur's Draft to the Prosecution, but Not to the Defence

102

(1)

IV. The Right to a Reasoned Judgment

102

(8)

A. The Meaning and Function of the Right to a Reasoned Judgment

102

(4)

1. Reasons of a Functional Orientation

103

(1)

2. Reasons of Legal Theory

103

(1)

3. Reasons of Acceptability

104

(1)

4. Reasons of Transparency

104

(1)

5. The Right to a Reasoned Decision as an Aspect of the Right to be Heard

104

(2)

B. The Standards of the Reasoning

106

(1)

C. Limits to the Requirement that Reasons be Given

107

(1)

1. The Jury Trial

107

(1)

2. Appeal Judgments

108

(1)

D. The Case-law

108

(2)

V. Other Aspects of Fairness

110

(7)

A. Nullum Judicium Sine Lege

110

(1)

B. Entrapment

111

(2)

C. Compulsion to Accept a 'Settlement'

113

(1)

D. Interference by a Non-judicial Authority

114

(1)

E. Miscellaneous Elements of Unfairness

114

(3)

1. Legal Certainty

114

(1)

2. Respect for Judgments

115

(1)

3. Pro Memoria

116

(1)

Chapter 5. The Right to a Public Hearing

I. Introduction

117

(9)

A. The Texts

117

(2)

B. The Origins of the Guarantee

119

(1)

C. The Purpose of the Guarantee of a Public Trial

119

(5)

1. The Case-law

119

(2)

2. Weakness of the Court's View

121

(1)

3. Individual Right or Institutional Guarantee?

121

(3)

4. The Obligation to Pronounce the Judgment Publicly

124

(1)

D. The Possibility of Waiving the Right to a Public Trial

124

(1)

E. A Right to a Closed Hearing?

125

(1)

II. The Substance of the Right to a Public Hearing

126

(3)

A. Immediate Publicity

126

(2)

B. The Role of the Media

128

(1)

C. The Substance of the Public Hearing

128

(1)

III. Limitations and Exceptions

129

(2)

A. Implied Limitations?

129

(1)

B. The Limitations Set Out in the Text

130

(1)

C. Appeal Proceedings

131

(1)

D. Cases Where Violations Were Found

131

(1)

IV. 'Judgment Shall be Pronounced Publicly'

131

(3)

Chapter 6. The Right to be Tried Within a Reasonable Time

I. Introduction

134

(3)

A. The Texts

134

(1)

B. The Origins of the Guarantee

135

(1)

C. The Purpose of the Guarantee

135

(1)

D. Length of Proceedings and Length of Detention on Remand

136

(1)

E. The Points to be Discussed

137

(1)

II. The Beginning of the Relevant Period

137

(3)

A. The 'Autonomous' Interpretation of the Term 'Charged'

137

(1)

B. The General Rule

138

(2)

C. Proceedings Commenced Before the Entry into Force of the Convention

140

(1)

III. The End of the Relevant Period

140

(1)

IV. The Assessment of the Period

141

(7)

A. The General Rule

141

(1)

B. The Conduct of the Applicant (and/or Counsel)

142

(2)

C. The Importance of the Proceedings for the Accused

144

(1)

D. The Complexity of the Case

144

(2)

E. The Conduct of the Domestic Authorities

146

(7)

1. The Principle

146

(1)

2. Ineffective Justifications

147

(1)

3. Effective Justifications

148

(1)

V. Compensation for the Excessive Length of Proceedings

148

(5)

Part Three The Specific Rights of the Defence

Chapter 7. The Right to be Presumed Innocent

I. Introduction

153

(14)

A. The Texts

153

(1)

B. The Origins of the Guarantee

153

(1)

C. General Characteristics of the Guarantee and some Basic Definitions

154

(9)

1. 'Charged with a Criminal Offence'

155

(1)

2. 'Presumed'

156

(1)

3. 'Innocent'

156

(5)

(a) Nullum Crimen Sine Culpa? The Issue of Mens Rea

157

(2)

(b) 'Innocent' or 'Not Liable to be Punished'?

159

(2)

4. 'Proved' Guilty

161

(1)

5. Proved Guilty 'According to Law'

162

(1)

D. The Two Distinct Aspects of the Presumption of Innocence

163

(1)

E. The Relationship Between the Presumption of Innocence and Other Aspects of the Right to a Fair Trial

164

(2)

1. The Presumption of Innocence and the Impartiality of the Judge

164

(1)

2. The Presumption of Innocence and the Right to a Fair Trial

165

(1)

3. The Presumption of Innocence and the Right to be Informed of the Charge

165

(1)

4. The Presumption of Innocence and the Privilege against Self-incrimination

166

(1)

5. The Presumption of Innocence in Civil Proceedings

166

(1)

F. The Specific Problems Arising with the Guarantee

166

(1)

II. The 'Outcome-related' Aspects of the Guarantee

167

(11)

A. The Burden of Proof

167

(7)

1. The Burden of Proof in the Proceedings

167

(1)

2. Reversal of the Burden of Proof by Legislation

168

(4)

(a) Legal Presumptions to the Detriment of the Accused

168

(1)

(i) Salabiaku and Similar Judgments

168

(1)

(ii) Assessment

170

(1)

(b) Criminal Liability for the Conduct of Others (Vicarious Liability)

171

(1)

171

(1)

3. Problems Related to Sentencing

172

(1)

4. The Revocation of a Suspended Sentence

173

(1)

B. The Evaluation of the Evidence

174

(4)

1. General Observations: The 'Fourth-instance' Issue

174

(1)

2. The Issue of Bias

174

(4)

(a) Judicial Bias

174

(1)

(b) Bias of Other Participants in the Proceedings

175

(1)

(i) The Prosecuting Authority

175

(1)

(ii) The Expert

175

(2)

177

(1)

3. No Right of Access to Court in Order to Establish One's Innocence

178

(1)

III. The 'Reputation-related' Aspects of the Guarantee

178

(14)

A. Introduction

178

(1)

B. Statements During the Pre-trial Phase of the Proceedings

178

(1)

C. Measures of Coercion, in Particular Detention on Remand

179

(3)

1. The Principle

179

(1)

2. The Limits

180

(2)

(a) General Aspects

180

(1)

(b) The Nature of Detention on Remand

181

(1)

D. Violation of the Presumption of Innocence in Cases where the Proceedings have Ended in Some Way Other than by Conviction and Sentence

182

(7)

1. The Effect of an Acquittal on the Presumption of Innocence

182

(3)

2. The Effect of a Procedural Termination of Criminal Proceedings on the Presumption of Innocence

185

(3)

(a) Order to Pay Costs and Compensation to the Plaintiff

186

(1)

(b) The Refusal of Compensation

187

(1)

188

(1)

3. Statements Unrelated to Criminal Proceedings

188

(1)

E. Assessment

189

(3)

Chapter 8. The Right to be Informed of the Accusation

I. Introduction

192

(4)

A. The Texts

192

(1)

B. The Origins of the Guarantee

192

(1)

C. The Purpose of the Guarantee

193

(2)

1. The Functional Approach

193

(1)

2. The Absolutist Approach

193

(1)

3. The Case-law

194

(1)

4. Assessment

194

(1)

D. Two Aspects of the Guarantee

195

(1)

E. The Structure of the Guarantee

195

(1)

II. Elements of Substance

196

(9)

A. The Term 'Charge'/'Accusation'

196

(4)

1. The Case-law

196

(2)

2. The Opinions of Legal Scholars

198

(1)

3. Assessment

199

(1)

B. 'Nature and Cause' and 'Detail'

200

(3)

1. With Regard to the Facts

201

(1)

2. With Regard to the Law

201

(2)

C. A Right 'To Be Informed'

203

(2)

III. Elements of Form

205

(3)

A. Must the Information be Given in Writing?

205

(1)

B. The Language

206

(1)

C. 'Promptly'

206

(2)

Chapter 9. Adequate Time and Facilities

I. Introduction

208

(7)

A. The Texts

208

(1)

B. The Origins of the Guarantee

208

(1)

C. The Purpose and Importance of the Guarantee

209

(2)

D. The Relative Character of the Guarantee

211

(4)

1. The General Relativity

211

(2)

2. The Specific Relativity

213

(1)

3. The Diligence Required from the Defence

214

(1)

II. The Right to Adequate Time

215

(7)

A. The Purpose of the Guarantee

215

(1)

B. The Relation of the Guarantee to the Other Rights of the Defence

216

(2)

1. The Relationship of Article 6 § 1, the Right to Trial 'Within a Reasonable Time'

216

(1)

2. The Relationship to the Principle of 'Equality of Arms'

216

(1)

3. The Relationship to Article 6 § 3(a)

217

(1)

4. The Relationship to Article 6 § 3(c)

218

(1)

C. What Constitutes 'Adequate Time'?

218

(4)

1. The Relevant Period

218

(2)

2. The Assessment of What is 'Adequate'

220

(1)

3. Proposals

221

(1)

4. Accelerated Proceedings

221

(1)

III. The Right to Adequate Facilities

222

(20)

A. Access to the File

222

(14)

1. General Observations

222

(1)

2. Four Aspects of Access to the File

223

(5)

(a) Access to the File Under the Continental System

224

(1)

(b) Discovery Under the Common-law System

224

(1)

225

(2)

(d) Investigation by the Defence

227

(1)

3. The Modalities of Discovery and Access to the File

228

(8)

(a) The Object

228

(2)

(b) Who has Access to the File?

230

(1)

231

(4)

(d) Various Issues

235

(1)

B. Other Facilities

236

(2)

1. Access to Legal Materials

236

(1)

2. A Reasoned Judgment

236

(1)

3. Notification of Consular Rights

237

(1)

4. Access to Medical Examination

237

(1)

5. The Right to a Hearing

238

(1)

C. Exceptions

238

(4)

Chapter 10. The Right to Defend Oneself and to Have the Assistance of Counsel

I. Introduction

242

(9)

A. The Texts

242

(1)

B. The Origins of the Guarantee

243

(1)

C. The Structure of Article 6 § 3(c) of the ECHR

243

(8)

1. The Purpose of the Right to a Defence

244

(3)

(a) The Technical Aspect

245

(1)

(b) The Psychological Aspect

245

(1)

246

(1)

(d) The Structural Aspect of the Right to a Defence

247

(1)

2. The Absolute Character of the Right to a Defence

247

(2)

(a) A Right without Any Restrictions?

247

(1)

(b) No Derogation in Times of War?

248

(1)

248

(1)

(d) Is a Violation Possible if the Accused was Finally Acquitted?

248

(1)

3. The Scope of the Application of the Right to a Defence

249

(2)

(a) The Right to Legal Assistance Outside Criminal Proceedings

249

(1)

(i) The Right to Legal Assistance in Proceedings on 'Civil Rights and Obligations'

249

(1)

(ii) The Right to Legal Assistance in Habeas Corpus Proceedings

249

(1)

(b) The Right to Legal Assistance During Different Phases of the Proceedings

250

(1)

(i) Before the Trial

250

(1)

(ii) Proceedings on Appeal

251

(1)

II. The Right to Defend Oneself

251

(15)

A. The Right of the Accused to Act in His or Her Defence

251

(12)

1. The General Rule

251

(1)

2. The Right to be Present at the Hearing

252

(9)

(a) The General Principle

252

(1)

(b) Exceptions for Disciplinary Reasons

253

(1)

253

(1)

(i) Possibility of a Retrial

254

(1)

(ii) Conditions for a Trial In Absentia Without the Possibility of a Retrial

255

(1)

(iii) Waiver and its Limitations

255

(2)

(d) The Right to be Present at a Hearing on Appeal

257

(1)

(i) Whether there was a Full Hearing at First Instance

257

(1)

(ii) Whether there is a Full Re-examination of the Case

257

(1)

(iii) What was at Stake for the Applicant

258

(1)

(iv) Whether there was a Risk of Reformatio in Peius

258

(1)

(v) Whether the Prosecutor Attended the Hearing

258

(1)

(vi) Whether the Appeal is Limited to Questions of Law

258

(1)

(vii) Whether the Accused was Given a New Sentence

259

(1)

(viii) Leave-to-Appeal Proceedings

260

(1)

(ix) The Obligation on the Defence to Act Diligently

260

(1)

3. The Limitation to Lawful Defence Activities

261

(1)

4. Formalities Must be Respected

262

(1)

B. The Right of the Accused to 'Defend Himself in Person'

263

(3)

III. The Right to the Assistance of Counsel of One's Own Choosing

266

(4)

A. A 'Practically Absolute' Right

266

(1)

B. Limitations as to the Persons Eligible as Counsel

267

(1)

C. Limitations as to the Number of Counsel

268

(1)

D. Confiscation of Assets and the Right to Counsel of the Accused's Choosing

269

(1)

IV. The Right to Legal Aid

270

(8)

A. The Economic Prerequisite

271

(1)

B. The Interests of Justice

272

(4)

1. The Seriousness of the Offence and the Severity of the Punishment

273

(2)

2. The Complexity of the Case

275

(1)

3. The Particularities of the Proceeding

275

(1)

4. The Particularities of the Accused

276

(1)

C. The Choice of the Lawyer

276

(1)

D. 'Free'

277

(1)

V. The Right to Contact with Counsel

278

(8)

A. The Principle

278

(3)

B. Exceptions

281

(1)

C. The Right to Contact with Counsel During the Police Investigations

282

(4)

VI. The Right to the Effective Assistance of Counsel

286

(5)

A. The Quality of the Defence

286

(2)

B. Effective Assistance During Pre-trial Proceedings

288

(3)

Chapter 11. The Right to Test Witness Evidence

I. Introduction

291

(9)

A. The Texts

291

(1)

B. The Origins of the Guarantee

292

(1)

C. The Purpose of the Guarantee

292

(1)

D. The Character of the Guarantee

293

(6)

1. The Proximity to the Establishment of the Facts

293

(1)

2. The Relative Character of the Guarantee

294

(12)

(a) The Issue In Abstracto

294

(1)

(b) The Court's Jurisprudence

295

(1)

296

(1)

(d) Assessment

297

(1)

(e) The Possibility of Waiver: Requirements of Diligence

298

(1)

E. The Model of Full Compliance with the Guarantee

299

(1)

F. The Problems Arising with the Guarantee

300

(1)

II. Defining the Term 'Witness'

300

(5)

A. The Autonomous Notion of 'Witness'

301

(1)

B. The Classical Notion of Witness

302

(1)

C. Parties as Witnesses

302

(1)

D. Informants as Witnesses

302

(1)

E. Expert Witnesses

303

(1)

F. Application of Article 6 § 3(d) to Evidence Other than that of Witnesses

304

(1)

III. The Right to Question Witnesses at Different Stages of the Proceedings

305

(4)

A. At the Trial

305

(1)

B. During Pre-trial Proceedings

306

(3)

1. The Witness is Only Questioned During the Investigation

307

(1)

2. The Right to Question a Witness During Pre-trial Proceedings

308

(1)

C. In Appeal Proceedings

309

(1)

IV. The Exercise of the Right

309

(3)

A. Who is Entitled to Exercise the Right to Question Witnesses?

309

(2)

1. Counsel and the Accused

309

(1)

2. The Accused Alone

310

(1)

3. Counsel Alone

310

(1)

B. How is the Right to be Exercised?

311

(1)

V. Limitations of the Right to Test Witness Evidence

312

(10)

A. General Observations

312

(2)

B. Typical Situations Justifying Exceptions

314

(8)

1. Absent Witnesses

314

(1)

2. The 'Precious' Witness

315

(1)

3. The Intimidated Witness

316

(4)

(a) The Justification for Anonymity

317

(1)

(b) The Methods for Counterbalancing Anonymity

318

(2)

4. The Vulnerable Witness

320

(2)

C. Hearsay Evidence

322

(1)

VI. The Right to Call Witnesses

322

(4)

A. The Particularities of this Right

323

(1)

B. The Discretion of the Presiding Judge

324

(1)

C. The Reluctance of the Strasbourg Court

324

(1)

D. The Further Development of the Case-law

325

(1)

VII. The Equality-of-arms Aspect

326

(1)

Chapter 12. The Right to the Free Assistance of an Interpreter

I. Introduction

327

(7)

A. The Texts

327

(1)

B. The Origins of the Guarantee

327

(1)

C. The Purpose of Article 6 § 3(e)

328

(3)

1. The Character and Purpose of the Right to an Interpreter

328

(2)

2. The Meaning and Purpose of the Right to the Free Assistance of an Interpreter

330

(1)

D. The 'Relative' and the 'Absolute' Character of the Guarantee

331

(1)

E. The Relationship of Article 6 § 3(e) to other Rights of the Defence

332

(2)

1. The Relationship to Article 5 § 2 and Article 6 § 3(a)

332

(1)

2. The Relationship to Article 6 § 3(c)

332

(1)

3. The Relationship to Article 6 § 3(d)

333

(1)

II. The Need for Interpretation

334

(2)

A. The Lack of Linguistic Proficiency

334

(1)

B. The Lack of Acoustic Abilities

335

(1)

III. The Modalities of the Right to an Interpreter

336

(4)

A. The Application at Various Stages of the Proceedings

336

(1)

B. The Application Ratione Materiae: The Objects of Interpretation and Translation

336

(3)

1. Interpretation at the Trial

336

(1)

2. Interpretation During the Pre-trial Proceedings

337

(1)

3. Translation of Documents

338

(1)

4. Communication with Counsel

338

(1)

C. The Qualifications of the Interpreter

339

(1)

Chapter 13. The Privilege Against Self-incrimination

I. Introduction

340

(10)

A. The Texts

340

(1)

B. Terminology

341

(1)

C. The Origins of the 'Privilege'

341

(1)

D. The Character of the Guarantee

342

(8)

1. Right to Silence and the Privilege Against Self-incrimination

342

(1)

2. Right to Silence and Freedom of Expression

342

(1)

3. Absolute or Relative Right?

343

(3)

4. Direct and Indirect Effects of the Guarantee

346

(1)

5. The Rationale of the Guarantee

347

(2)

(a) The Starting Point

347

(1)

(b) The Link to Outcome-related Justice

347

(1)

348

(1)

(d) Respecting the Will of the Accused

348

(1)

6. The Scope of the Guarantee

349

(1)

(a) Application Ratione Materiae

349

(1)

(b) Application Ratione Personae

349

(1)

II. The Direct Effect of the Privilege

350

(5)

A. The Right to Remain Silent

350

(3)

1. Protection Against Immediate Physical Pressure

350

(1)

2. Protection Against the Use of Deception

350

(2)

3. A Right to be Warned?

352

(1)

B. The Right Not to Hand Over Documents

353

(1)

1. The Judgment in Funke v. France

353

(1)

C. Exceptions

354

(1)

1. Non-testimonial Contributions

354

(1)

2. Disclosure of One's Identity

354

(1)

III. The Indirect Effect of the Privilege

355

(5)

A. Introduction

355

(1)

B. Adverse Inferences from Silence

356

(4)

1. John Murray v. United Kingdom

356

(2)

2. The Case-law after John Murray

358

(1)

3. Assessment

359

(1)

Chapter 14. The Right to Appeal

I. Introduction

360

(3)

A. The Texts

360

(1)

B. The Origins

360

(2)

C. The Purpose of the Right to Appeal

362

(1)

II. The Prerequisites for the Right to Appeal

363

(2)

A. The Term 'Criminal Offence' in the Right to Appeal

363

(1)

B. The Notion of 'Conviction' in the Right to Appeal

364

(1)

C. Conviction by a Tribunal

365

(1)

III. The Review

365

(3)

A. The Discretion Left to the Contracting States

365

(3)

B. The 'Higher Tribunal'

368

(1)

IV. The Exceptions

368

(4)

A. Petty Offences

368

(2)

B. The Highest Court Sitting at First Instance

370

(1)

C. Conviction on Appeal after Acquittal

371

(1)

Chapter 15. The Right to Compensation for Wrongful Conviction

I. The Texts

372

(1)

II. The Origins of the Guarantee

373

(1)

III. The Purpose and Significance of the Guarantee

374

(1)

IV. The Prerequisites of the Right to Compensation for Wrongful Conviction

375

(4)

A. Convicted of a Criminal Offence

375

(1)

B. A Conviction

375

(1)

C. The Conviction Must Have Been Final

375

(1)

D. The Punishment

376

(1)

E. The Execution of the Sentence

376

(1)

F. The Decision to Convict Must Have Been Set Aside

377

(1)

G. The Reversal Must be Based on New Facts

377

(1)

H. No Responsibility for Non-disclosure

378

(1)

I. The Establishment of Innocence

378

(1)

V. The Right to Compensation

379

(2)

A. The Substance of the Compensation

379

(1)

B. The Beneficiary of the Right to Compensation

379

(1)

C. According to the Law (or the Practice) of the State Concerned

380

(1)

Chapter 16. The Protection Against Double Jeopardy

I. Introduction

381

(2)

A. The Texts

381

(1)

B. The Origins of the Guarantee

382

(1)

II. The Aim and Purpose of the Guarantee

383

(1)

III. Ne Bis In Idem as an Element of the Right to a Fair Trial?

384

(1)

IV. The Scope of Application of the Guarantee

385

(3)

A. Territorial Application

385

(2)

B. The Scope of Application ratione materiae

387

(1)

V. The First Trial

388

(3)

A. Acquittal or Conviction

388

(1)

B. The 'Final Character' of the Decision

389

(1)

C. 'In Accordance with the Law and Penal Procedure of that State'

390

(1)

VI. The Second Trial

391

(1)

VII. Identical Offences

391

(8)

A. An Identical Aim

392

(1)

B. Same Person

392

(1)

C. Same Conduct

392

(2)

1. 'Natural' and 'Legal' Unity of Conduct

393

(1)

2. Conduct or Result?

393

(1)

D. The Same Offence

394

(1)

E. Is the Court's Case-law Consistent?

394

(6)

1. Gradinger and Oliveira

394

(2)

2. Consolidation of the Case-law

396

(1)

3. Understanding Criminal Law

396

(1)

4. Evaluation

397

(1)

5. Proposal

398

(1)

VIII. 'Punished Again'

399

(1)

IX. The Exceptions

400

(2)

A. New Facts

401

(1)

B. Procedural Defects

401

(1)

X. Absolute Character

402

(3)

Part Four Measures of Coercion

Chapter 17. Liberty and Security of Person: The Rules on Imprisonment

I. Introduction

405

(14)

A. General Observations

405

(3)

1. The Texts

405

(2)

2. The Importance of Personal Liberty in Criminal Proceedings

407

(1)

3. The Scope of the Present Chapter

408

(1)

4. The Construction of the Guarantee

408

(1)

B. The Right Guaranteed

408

(4)

1. The Notion of Personal Liberty

408

(1)

2. The Notion of Security of Person

409

(3)

C. The Interference: Arrest and Detention

412

(7)

1. The Definition

412

(1)

2. Space

413

(1)

3. Coercion and Waiver

414

(2)

4. Time

416

(1)

5. Relativity of the Notion of Deprivation of Liberty

417

(2)

II. The Exceptions to Liberty of Person

419

(36)

A. General Aspects

419

(4)

1. The Structure of the Second Sentence of Paragraph 1

419

(1)

2. The Requirement of Lawfulness

420

(3)

(a) The Meaning of 'Law' in the Convention

420

(1)

(b) The Various Elements of 'Lawfulness' in Article 5 § 1

420

(1)

421

(2)

B. Detention on Remand: Article 5 § 1(c)

423

(13)

1. Reasonable Suspicion

423

(5)

(a) The Object of the Suspicion

425

(1)

(b) The Suspicion of Having Committed an Offence

426

(1)

427

(1)

(d) When it is Reasonably Considered Necessary to Prevent a Person from Fleeing after Having Committed an Offence

428

(1)

2. The Purpose of Bringing the Person Concerned 'Before the Competent Legal Authority'

428

(1)

3. Specific Aspects of Lawfulness of Detention on Remand

429

(5)

(a) Insufficient Certainty of the Law

429

(2)

(b) Male Captus Bene ludicatus?

431

(2)

433

(1)

4. Necessity

434

(2)

C. Detention after Conviction: Article 5 § 1(a)

436

(7)

1. General Characteristics

436

(1)

2. Conviction

436

(4)

(a) Definition

436

(1)

(b) Guilt

437

(1)

437

(1)

(d) Material Justification

437

(2)

(e) Compliance with Article 6

439

(1)

3. Competent Court

440

(1)

4. The Link Between Conviction and Detention: 'After'

440

(3)

5. The Duration of Imprisonment

443

(1)

D. Detention for Non-compliance with a Court Order or to Secure the Fulfilment of a Legal Obligation: Article 5 § 1(b)

443

(2)

1. Detention for 'Non-compliance with the Lawful Order of a Court'

443

(1)

2. Detention 'in Order to Secure the Fulfilment of any Obligation Prescribed by Law'

444

(1)

E. Detention of a Minor: Article 5 § 1(d)

445

(2)

1. 'Minor'

445

(1)

2. The Educational Purpose

445

(1)

3. Detention of a Minor on Remand

446

(1)

4. The Implementation of Deprivation of Liberty of a Minor

446

(1)

F. Detention for the Prevention of the Spreading of Contagious Diseases and of the Socially Maladjusted: Article 5 § 1(e)

447

(4)

1. Detention for the Prevention of the Spreading of Infectious Diseases

447

(1)

2. Persons of Unsound Mind

448

(2)

(a) General Observations

448

(1)

(b) The Three Prerequisites

448

(1)

448

(1)

(d) The Element of Danger

449

(1)

(e) The Element of Continuation

450

(1)

3. The Place of Detention

450

(1)

4. Addicts

450

(1)

5. Vagrants

451

(1)

G. Detention to Prevent an Unauthorized Entry or with a View to Deportation or Extradition

451

(4)

1. Detention to Prevent Unauthorized Entry

451

(1)

2. Arrest or Detention with a View to Deportation or Extradition

452

(3)

(a) The Formal Character of the Exception

452

(1)

(b) Limitations to the Length of Detention under Sub-paragraph (f)

453

(2)

Chapter 18. The Rights Guaranteed to all Persons Deprived of their Liberty

I. The Right to be Informed of the Reasons for the Arrest

455

(7)

A. Introduction

455

(2)

1. The Texts

455

(1)

2. The Purpose of the Guarantee

456

(1)

3. The Characterization of the Right by the European Court

456

(1)

B. The Elements of the Right to Information

457

(5)

1. The Scope of the Right to be Informed of the Reasons for the Arrest

457

(1)

2. The Nature of the Information to be Conveyed

457

(2)

3. The Addressee of the Information

459

(1)

4. The Time Element

459

(1)

5. The Form of the Information

460

(2)

II. The Right to Habeus Corpus Proceedings

462

(33)

A. Introduction

462

(2)

1. The Texts

462

(1)

2. The Origin and Purpose of the Right

462

(2)

(a) The Origin of the Right to Habeus Corpus Proceedings

462

(1)

(b) The Purpose of the Guarantee

463

(1)

3. The Issues to be Discussed

464

(1)

B. The Scope of the Right to Take Habeas Corpus Proceedings

464

(11)

1. The Autonomous Character of the Guarantee

465

(1)

2. The Condition of Being Deprived of One's Liberty

466

(1)

3. The Scope of Application in Time

466

(2)

(a) Immediate Applicability

466

(1)

(b) Release Pending Habeas Corpus Proceedings

467

(1)

4. Habeas Corpus where the Detention was Ordered by a Court

468

(2)

(a) The 'Doctrine of Incorporation'

468

(2)

(b) A Further Development

470

(1)

5. The Exceptions to the Incorporation Doctrine

470

(5)

(a) Confinement Linked to 'Unsoundness of Mind'

470

(1)

(b) Detention of Dangerous Convicts

471

(3)

474

(1)

(d) Detention for Non-payment of a Fine

475

(1)

C. The Scope of Judicial Control under § 4

475

(3)

1. General Observations

475

(1)

2. Ineffective Remedies

476

(2)

3. Issues of National Security

478

(1)

D. Procedural Requirements

478

(17)

1. Introduction

478

(1)

2. The Right to Access to a Court

479

(3)

(a) Independence and Impartiality

479

(2)

(b) The Power to Release

481

(1)

3. The Procedural Rights

482

(9)

(a) The Right to an Oral Hearing

482

(2)

(b) Equality of Arms and Adversarial Proceedings

484

(1)

484

(2)

(d) The Right to Legal Assistance

486

(1)

(i) General Rules Concerning Access to Counsel

486

(1)

(ii) The Right to Legal-Aid Counsel

486

(1)

(e) A Presumption Pro Libertate?

487

(2)

(f) A Right to Appeal?

489

(1)

(g) A Right to Submit Multiple Applications

489

(2)

4. The Requirement of Speediness

491

(4)

(a) Issues Related to the Time Element

491

(3)

(b) An Illustration taken from the Case-law

494

(1)

494

(1)

III. The Right to Compensation

495

(7)

A. Introduction

495

(2)

1. The Texts

495

(1)

2. The Origins of the Guarantee

496

(1)

3. The Characteristics of the Right

496

(1)

B. The Prerequisites of Compensation

497

(3)

1. Detention which is 'Unlawful'/'in Contravention' of paragraphs 1-4 of Article 5

497

(2)

(a) In General

497

(1)

(b) Problems Occurring where the Convention is Not Yet in Force

498

(1)

498

(1)

2. Damage

499

(1)

C. The Amount of Compensation

500

(2)

Chapter 19. The Special Rights of Persons Detained on Remand

I. Introduction

502

(3)

A. The Texts

502

(1)

B. The Justification of Special Safeguards for those Detained on Remand

503

(1)

C. Other Safeguards

504

(1)

II. The Right to be Brought before a Judge

505

(11)

A. The Purpose and Character of the Right

505

(2)

B. The Judge or 'Other Officer Authorised by Law to Exercise Judicial Power'

507

(4)

1. The Independence and Impartiality of the Authority

507

(3)

2. The Power to Order Release

510

(1)

C. 'Promptly'I'Aussitht'

511

(3)

1. The Period to be Considered

511

(1)

2. The Time Limit

512

(2)

D. The Procedure Before the Judge

514

(1)

1. The Need for an Oral Hearing

514

(1)

2. The Need for Previous Information

514

(1)

3. The Right to be Assisted by Counsel

514

(1)

4. The Right to a Reasoned Decision

515

(1)

E. The (Ir)Relevance of Situations of Emergency

515

(1)

III. The Limitation in Time of Detention on Remand

516

(16)

A. General Remarks

516

(2)

B. The Period to be Assessed

518

(3)

1. The Beginning of the Period

518

(1)

2. The End of the Period

519

(2)

3. Interruption of the Period

521

(1)

C. Criteria of Reasonableness

521

(13)

1. 'Relevant' and 'Sufficient' Grounds for the Continuing Detention

523

(4)

(a) Danger of Absconding

524

(1)

(b) Risk of Tampering with Evidence and Suborning Witnesses

525

(1)

526

(1)

(d) The Risk of Reoffending

526

(1)

(e) Protection of Public Order

527

(1)

(f) The Need to Protect the Applicant

527

(1)

2. Grounds which are not Relevant or Sufficient to Justify the Continued Detention

527

(1)

(a) The Seriousness of the Alleged Offence

527

(1)

(b) The Requirements of the Inquiry

528

(1)

3. 'Special Diligence' and the Conduct of the Proceedings

528

(4)

IV. Release on Bail

532

(1)

V. Possibility of Redress

533

(1)

Chapter 20. Other Fundamental Rights Affected by Criminal Proceedings

I. Introduction

534

(1)

A. The Issues Dealt with in this Chapter

534

(1)

B. The General Approach

534

(1)

II. Interference with the Right to Respect for Private Life: General Observations

535

(5)

A. The Basic Structure of the Protection of Private Life

535

(2)

1. The Texts

535

(1)

2. The Elements of the Protection of Private Life

536

(1)

B. The Elements Common to the Protection of Various Aspects of Private Life

537

(3)

1. The Requirement of Lawfulness

537

(2)

2. The Legitimate Aim

539

(1)

3. Necessary in a Democratic Society

540

(1)

III. Surveillance and Interception of Communications

540

(5)

A. Introduction

540

(2)

B. Interception of Written Correspondence

542

(3)

1. The Case-law

542

(1)

2. Principles Concerning Prisoners' Correspondence

543

(2)

IV. Technical Surveillance

545

(7)

A. The Scope of Private Life in this Context

545

(1)

B. The Interference

546

(3)

C. Special Requirements for the Legal Basis

549

(1)

D. The Scope of the Interference

550

(1)

E. 'Necessary in a Democratic Society'

550

(1)

F. Subsequent Notification

551

(1)

V. Storage of Data

552

(3)

A. Applicability of the Right to Respect for Private Life

553

(1)

B. The Interference

554

(1)

C. The Justification of the Interference

554

(2)

1. The Legal Basis

554

(1)

2. The Aim of the Interference

555

(1)

3. Necessary in a Democratic Society

555

(1)

VI. Undercover Agents

555

(1)

VII. Search and Seizure: Interference with the Home

556

(3)

A. The Interference with the Right to Respect for the 'Home'

557

(1)

B. The Legal Basis

557

(1)

C. The Aim of the Interference

558

(1)

D. Necessary in a Democratic Society

558

(1)

VIII. The Protection of Property

559

(3)

A. The Texts

559

(1)

B. Introduction

560

(1)

C. Confiscation

560

(2)

Select Bibliography

562

(20)

Index

582

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Human Rights in Criminal Proceedings

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials